50. R. E. Kendell and I. F. Brockington (1980) ‘The identification of disease entities and the relationship between schizophrenic and affective psychoses’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 137:324–31. See also R. E. Kendell (1991) ‘The major functional psychoses: are they independent entities or part of a continuum? Philosophical and conceptual issues underlying the debate’, in Kerr and McClelland (eds.), Concepts of Mental Disorder, op. cit.
51. For fascinating accounts of the history of psychopharmacology, see David Healy’s books The Psychopharmacologists: Interviews with David Healy (London: Chapman and Hall, 1996) and The Anti-Depressant Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
52. E. Shorter (1997) A History of Psychiatry. New York: Wiley.
53. E. Kraepelin (1899/1990) Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, vol. 1: General Psychiatry. Canton, MA: Watson Publishing International.
54. A. D. Smith, ‘Henri Laborit: in humanity’s laboratory’, Guardian, 14 June 1995.
55. E. C. Johnstone, T. J. Crow, C. D. Frith and D. G. C. Owens (1988) ‘The Northwick Park “functional” psychosis study: diagnosis and treatment response’, Lancet, ii: 119–25.
56. G. E. Berrios and D. Beer (1995) ‘Unitary psychosis concept’, in G. E. Berrios and R. Porter (eds.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry. London: Athlone Press.
57. Crow, ‘The failure of the binary concept’, op. cit.
58. L. A. Clark, D. Watson and S. Reynolds (1995) ‘Diagnosis and classification of psychopathology: challenges to the current system and future directions’, Annual Review of Psychology, 46: 121–53.
59. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (4th edition). Washington, DC: APA.
60. J. van Os, C. Gilvarry, R. Bale, E. van Horn, T. Tattan, I. White and R. Murray (1999) ‘A comparison of the utility of dimensional and categorical representations of psychosis’, Psychological Medicine, 29, 595–606.
Chapter 5 The Boundaries of Madness
1. L. Wittgenstein (1980) Culture and Value (trans. P. Winch). Oxford: Blackwell.
2. G. E. Berrios (1996) The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology since the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. H. A. Sidgewick (1894) ‘Report of the census on hallucinations’, Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, 26: 259–394.
4. D. J. West (1948) ‘A mass observation questionnaire on hallucinations’, Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 34: 187–96.
5. T. B. Posey and M. E. Losch (1983) ‘Auditory hallucinations of hearing voices in 375 normal subjects’, Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 2: 99–113.
6. R. P. Bentall and P. D. Slade (1985) ‘Reliability of a measure of disposition towards hallucinations’, Personality and Individual Differences, 6: 527–9; H. F. Young, R. P. Bentall, P. D. Slade and M. E. Dewey (1986) ‘Disposition towards hallucinations, gender and IQ score’, Personality and Individual Differences, 7: 247–9.
7. T. R. Barrett and J. B. Etheridge (1992) ‘Verbal hallucinations in normals: I. People who hear voices’, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6: 379–87; T. R. Barrett and J. B. Etheridge (1993) ‘Verbal hallucinations in normals: II. Self-reported imagery vividness’, Personality and Individual Differences, 15:61–7; T. R. Barrett and J. B. Etheridge (1994) ‘Verbal hallucinations in normals: III. Dysfunctional personality correlates’, Personality and Individual Differences, 16: 57–62.
8. A. Y. Tien (1991) ‘Distribution of hallucinations in the population’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 26: 287–92.
9. J. van Os, M. Hanssen, R. V. Bijl and A. Ravelli (2000) ‘Strauss (1969) revisited: a psychosis continuum in the normal population?’ Schizophrenia Research, 45: 11–20.
10. R. Poulton, A. Caspi, T. E. Moffitt, M. Cannon, R. Murray and H. Harrington (2000) ‘Children’s self-reported psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: a 15-year longitudinal study’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 57: 1053–8.
11. A. Jablensky (1995) ‘Schizophrenia: the epidemiological horizon’, in S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger (eds.), Schizophrenia, Oxford: Blackwell.
12. G. H. Gallup and F. Newport (1991) ‘Belief in paranormal phenomena among adult Americans’, Sceptical Inquirer, 15: 137–46.
13. C. A. Ross and S. Joshi (1992) ‘Paranormal experiences in the general population’, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180: 357–61.
14. A. Greeley (1975) The Sociology of the Paranormal: A Reconnaissance. Beverly Hills: Sage.
15. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (1976) Mysticism: Spiritual Quest or Psychotic Disorder? New York: GAP Publications.
16. D. Lyons (2001) ‘Soviet-style psychiatry is alive and well in the People’s Republic’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 178: 380–1.
17. M. Jackson and K. W. M. Fulford (1997) ‘Spiritual experience and psychopathology’, Philosophy, Psychiatry and Psychology, 1: 41–65.
18. G. Roberts (1991) ‘Delusional belief systems and meaning in life: a preferred reality?’ British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, Supplement 14: 19–28.
19. E. Peters, S. Day, J. McKenna and G. Orbach (1999) ‘Delusional ideation in religious and psychotic populations’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38: 83–96.
20. See L. S. Newman and R. F. Baumeister (1996) ‘Towards an explanation of the UFO abduction phenomenon: hypnotic elaboration, extraterrestrial sadomasochism, and spurious memories’, Psychological Inquiry, 7: 99–126.
21. J. E. Mack (1994) Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens. New York: Macmillan.
22. S. Appelle, S. J. Lynn and L. Newman (2000) ‘Alien abduction experiences’, in E. Cardena, S. J. Lynn and S. Krippner (eds.), Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 253–82.
23. N. P. Spanos, P. A. Cross, K. Dickson and S. C. DuBreuil (1993) ‘Close encounters: an examination of UFO experiences’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102: 624–32.
24. J. Chequers, S. Joseph and D. Diduca (1997) ‘Belief in extraterrestrial life, UFO-related beliefs, and schizotypal personality’, Personality and Individual Differences, 23: 519–21.
25. van Os et al., ‘Strauss (1969) revisited’, op. cit.
26. Poulton et al., ‘Children’s self-reported psychotic symptoms’, op. cit.
27. H. Verdoux, S. Maurice-Tison, B. Gay, J. van Os, R. Salamon and M. L. Bourgeois (1998) ‘A survey of delusional ideation in primary-care patients’, Psychological Medicine, 28: 127–34.
28. N. C. Andreasen (1979) ‘Thought, language and communication disorders: diagnostic significance’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 36: 1325–30.
29. This study is reported in two books: D. J. Weeks and K. Ward (1988) Eccentrics: The Scientific Investigation. Stirling: Stirling University Press; and D. J. Weeks and J. James (1995) Eccentrics. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
30. Quoted in Weeks and James, Eccentrics, op. cit.
31. T. S. Szasz (1993) ‘Crazy talk: thought disorder or psychiatric arrogance?’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66: 61–7.
32. J. Leff (1993) “‘Crazy talk: thought disorder or psychiatric arrogance?”: Comment’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66: 77–8.
33. R. Littlewood and M. Lipsedge (1989) Aliens and Alienists: Ethnic Minorities and Psychiatry (2nd edn). London: Unwin Hyman.
34. Poulton et al., ‘Children’s self-reported psychotic symptoms’, op. cit.
35. R. A. Depue, J. F. Slater, H. Wolfstetter-Kausch, D. Klein, E. Goplerud and D. Farr (1981) ‘A behavioral paradigm for identifying persons at risk for bipolar depressive disorder: a conceptual framework and five validation studies’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90: 381–437.
36. W. Wicki and J. Angst (1991) ‘The Zurich study. X: Hypomania in a 28- to 30-year-old cohort’, European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 240: 339–48.
37. J. Angst (1998) ‘The emerging epidemiology of hypomania and bipolar II disorder’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 50: 143–51.
38. H. S. Akiskal (1994) ‘The temperamental borders of affective disorders’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89 (suppl. 379): 32–7. See also H. S. Akiskal, M. L. Bourgeois, J. Angst, R. Post, H.-J. Moller and R. Hirschfeld (2000) ‘Re-evaluating the prevalence of and diagnostic composition within the broad clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 59: S5–S30.
39. E. Kretschmer (1925) Physique and Character (trans. W. J. H. Sprott). London: Kegan, Trench & Trubner.
40. L. Rees (1973) ‘Constitutional factors and abnormal behaviour’, in H. J. Eysenck (ed.), Handbook of Abnormal Psychology. San Diego, CA: Edits Publishers.
41. One researcher who was influenced by Kretschmer was Hans Eysenck, one of the most controversial psychologists of the twentieth century, who was born in Germany but moved to Britain in the early 1930s in order to escape Nazism. After working as a psychologist at the Mill Hill Emergency Hospital during the Second World War, he became head of the Department of Psychology at the University of London Institute of Psychiatry. His controversial status arose from his views about racial differences in innate intelligence. However, he was at least as well known for his less contentious ideas about human personality.
It is impossible to do full justice to Eysenck’s theory of personality in a few paragraphs. Suffice it to say that, in his early work, he proposed that ordinary people varied along two independent dimensions which he believed to be largely influenced by genetic factors: neuroticism (roughly, the extent to which the individual is easily emotionally aroused) and introversion–extroversion (roughly, the extent to which the individual is comfortable with and seeks out the company of others). However, building on Kretschmer’s ideas, in his later work with his wife Sybil (H. J. Eysenck and S. B. G. Eysenck (1976) Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality. London: Hodder & Stoughton) he argued that he had identified a third dimension, which he called psychoticism. Eysenck believed that, as the name implied, psychotic illness lay at the extreme end of this dimension.
Eysenck was able to develop questionnaire measures of his three dimensions, which became known as the N, E and P scales. Although his theory became one of the standard models of personality, his concept of psychoticism has been criticized by clinicians for several reasons. Inspection of items from the P scale (for example, ‘Would being in debt worry you?’, ‘Do you sometimes like teasing animals?’, ‘Do you enjoy hurting people you love?’) reveals that they assess impulsiveness and indifference to the needs of others, rather than the kinds of experiences reported by psychotic patients. Criminals often score at least as high on P as psychotic patients. More importantly perhaps, and consistent with the idea that emotional arousal plays an important role in psychosis, recent studies suggest that psychotic patients score highly on N rather than P (R. J. Gurrera, P. G. Nestor and B. F. O’Donnell (2000) ‘Personality traits in schizophrenia: comparison with a community sample’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188: 31–5). In short, it seems doubtful that Eysenck’s concept of psychoticism, however valid as a measure of personality, measures traits that are directly related to psychotic illness.
42. P. Meehl (1962) ‘Schizotaxia, schizotypia, schizophrenia’, American Psychologist, 17: 827–38. For an updated version of the theory, see P. Meehl (1989) ‘Schizotaxia revisited’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 46: 935–44.
43. S. Kety, D. Rosenthal, P. H. Wender, F. Schulsinger and B. Jacobsen (1975) ‘Mental illness in the biological and adoptive families of adopted individuals who have become schizophrenic: a preliminary report based on psychiatric interviews’, in R. Fieve, D. Rosenthal and H. Brill (eds.), Genetic Research in Psychiatry. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
44. R. L. Spitzer, J. Endicott and M. Gibbon (1979) ‘Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 36: 17–24.
45. G. Mellsop, F. Varghese, S. Joshua and A. Hicks (1982) ‘The reliability of Axis II of DSM-III’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 139: 1360–61.
46. For a review of this work, see W. M. Grove (1982) ‘Psychometric detection of schizotypy’, Psychological Bulletin, 92: 27–38.
47. L. J. Chapman, J. P. Chapman and M. L. Raulin (1976) ‘Scales for physical and social anhedonia’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85: 374–82; L. J. Chapman, E. W. Edell and J. P. Chapman (1980) ‘Physical anhedonia, perceptual aberration and psychosis proneness’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 6: 639–53; M. Eckblad and L. J. Chapman (1983) ‘Magical ideation as an indicator of schizotypy’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51: 215–25; M. Eckblad and L. J. Chapman (1986) ‘Development and validation of a scale for hypomanic personality’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95: 214–22.
48. G. S. Claridge and P. Brocks (1984) ‘Schizotypy and hemisphere function – I. Theoretical considerations and the measurement of schizotypy’, Personality and Individual Differences, 5: 633–48.
49. G. S. Claridge (1990) ‘Can a disease model of schizophrenia survive?’ in R. P. Bentall (ed.), Reconstructing Schizophrenia. London: Routledge, pp. 157–83.
50. L. J. Chapman, J. P. Chapman, T. R. Kwapil, M. Eckblad and M. C. Zinser (1994) ‘Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103: 171–83.
51. Akiskal, ‘The temperamental borders of affective disorders’, op. cit.
52. Spitzer et al., ‘Crossing the border’, op. cit.
53. R. P. Bentall, G. S. Claridge and P. D. Slade (1989) ‘The multidimensional nature of schizotypal traits: a factor-analytic study with normal subjects’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28: 363–75.
54. G. S. Claridge and T. Beech (1995) ‘Fully and quasi-dimensional constructions of schizotypy’, in A. Raine, T. Lencz and S. A. Mednick (eds.), Schizotypal Personality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; M. G. Vollema and R. J. van den Bosch (1995) ‘The multidimensionality of schizotypy’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 21: 19–31.
55. G. Claridge, C. McCreery, O. Mason, R. P. Bentall, G. Boyle, P. D. Slade and D. Popplewell (1996) ‘The factor structure of “schizotypal” traits: a large replication study’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35: 103–15.
56. C. A. Reynolds, A. Raine, K. Mellingen, P. H. Venables and S. A. Mednick (2000) ‘Three-factor model of schizotypal personality: invariance across culture, gender, religious affiliation, family adversity, and psychopathology’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26: 603–18.
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58. For a review of suicide in schizophrenia patients, see C. B. Caldwell and I. I. Gottesman (1990) ‘Schizophrenics kill themselves too: a review of risk factors for suicide’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16: 571–89. For similar data on bipolar patients, see F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
59. Ö. Ödegaard (1980) ‘Fertility of psychiatric first admissions in Norway, 1936–75’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 62: 212–20; G. Hutchinson, D. Bhugra, R. Mallett, R. Burnett, B. Corridan and J. P. Leff (1999) ‘Fertility and marital rates in first-onset schizophrenia’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 34: 617–21.
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61. L. F. Jarvick and S. B. Chadwick (1972) ‘Schizophrenia and survival’, in S. B. Hammer, K. Salzinger and A. Sutton (eds.), Psychopathology. New York: Wiley.
62. A. Stevens and J. Price (1996) Evolutionary Psychiatry. London: Routledge.
63. J. H. Brod (1997) ‘Creativity and schizotypy, in G. S. Claridge (ed.), Schizotypy: Implications for Illness and Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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66. Nasar, A Beautiful Mind, op. cit.
67. See for example: A. M. Ludwig (1995) The Price of Greatness: Resolving the Creativity and Madness Controversy. New York: Guilford; F. Post (1996) ‘Verbal creativity, depression and alcoholism: an investigation of 100 American and British writers’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 168: 545–55; G. S. Claridge (1998) ‘Creativity and madness: clues from modern psychiatric diagnosis’, in A. Steptoe (ed.), Genius and the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
68. N. C. Andreasen (1987) ‘Creativity and mental illness: prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree relatives’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 144: 1288–92.
69. K. R. Jamison (1989) ‘Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers and artists’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 52: 125–34.
70. J. L. Karlsson (1984) ‘Creative intelligence in relatives of mental patients’, Hereditas, 100: 83–6.
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