82. R. Langdon, P. Michie, P. B. Ward, N. McConaghy, S. V. Catts and M. Coltheart (1997) ‘Defective self and/or other mentalising in schizophrenia: a cognitive neuropsychological approach’, Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 2: 167–93.
83. V. M. Drury, E. J. Robinson and M. Birchwood (1998) ‘“Theory of mind” skills during an acute episode of psychosis and following recovery’, Psychological Medicine, 28: 1101–12.
84. D. Murphy (1998) ‘Theory of mind in a sample of men with schizophrenia detained in a special hospital: its relationship to symptom profiles and neuropsychological tests’, Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 8: 13–26; F. Walston, R. C. Blennerhassett and B. G. Charlton (2000) ‘“Theory of mind”, persecutory delusions and the somatic marker hypothesis’, Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 5: 161–74.
85. N. Kerr, R. I. M. Dunbar and R. P. Bentall (2003) ‘Theory of mind in bipolar affective disorder’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 73: 253–9.
86. S. Kaney and R. P. Bentall (1989) ‘Persecutory delusions and attributional style’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 62: 191–8.
87. Fear, Sharp and Healy, ‘Cognitive processes’, op. cit.
88. C. L. Candido and D. M. Romney (1990) ‘Attributional style in paranoid vs depressed patients’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 63: 355–63.
89. H. Kristev, H. Jackson and D. Maude (1999) ‘An investigation of attributional style in first-episode psychosis’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 88: 181–94.
90. H. J. Lee and H. T. Won (1998) ‘The self-concepts, the other-concepts, and attributional style in paranoia and depression’, Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 17: 105–25; H. T. Won and H. J. Lee (1997) ‘The self-concept and attributional style in a paranoid group’, Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 16: 173–82.
91. H. M. Sharp, C. F. Fear and D. Healy (1997) ‘Attributional style and delusions: an investigation based on delusional content’, European Psychiatry, 12: 1–7.
92. S. Kaney and R. P. Bentall (1992) ‘Persecutory delusions and the self-serving bias’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180: 773–80.
93. P. A. White (1991) ‘Ambiguity in the internal/external distinction in causal attribution’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27: 259–70.
94. See, for example, K. Reivich (1995) ‘The measurement of explanatory style’, in G. M. Buchanan and M. E. P. Seligman (eds.), Explanatory Style. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. In general, studies have shown that the Attributional Style Questionnaire has extremely poor psychometric properties and, in particular, that scores on individual items show poor consistency. It has continued to be the most widely used attributional measure mainly because of the lack of aviable alternative.
95. P. Kinderman and R. P. Bentall (1996) ‘The development of a novel measure of causal attributions: the Internal Personal and Situational Attributions Questionnaire’, Personality and Individual Differences, 20: 261–4. See also L. Day and J. Maltby (2000) ‘Can Kinderman and Bentall’s suggestion for a personal and situational attributions questionnaire be used to examine all aspects of attributional style?’ Personality and Individual Differences, 29: 1047–55.
96. D. R. Hemsley and P. A. Garety (1986) ‘The formation and maintenance of delusions: a Bayesian analysis’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 149: 51–6.
97. S. F. Huq, P. A. Garety and D. R. Hemsley (1988) ‘Probabilistic judgements in deluded and nondeluded subjects’, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40A: 801–12.
98. P. A. Garety, D. R. Hemsley and S. Wessely (1991) ‘Reasoning in deluded schizophrenic and paranoid patients’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179: 194–201.
99. Y. Linney, E. Peters and P. Ayton (1998) ‘Reasoning biases in delusion-prone individuals’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37: 285–302.
100. C. H. John and G. Dodgson (1994) ‘Inductive reasoning in delusional thought’, Journal of Mental Health, 3: 31–49; see also H. F. Young and R. P. Bentall (1995) ‘Hypothesis testing inpatients with persecutory delusions: comparison with depressed and normal subjects’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34: 353–69.
101. R. E. J. Dudley, C. H. John, A. W. Young and D. E. Over (1997) ‘The effect of self-referent material on the reasoning of people with delusions’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36: 575–84.
102. H. F. Young and R. P. Bentall (1997) ‘Probabilistic reasoning in deluded, depressed and normal subjects: effects of task difficulty and meaningful versus nonmeaningful materials’, Psychological Medicine, 27: 455–65.
103. K. Salzinger (1984) ‘The immediacy hypothesis in a theory of schizophrenia’, in D. Spaulding and J. K. Cole (eds.), Theories of Schizophrenia and Psychosis: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
104. R. E. J. Dudley, C. H. John, A. W. Young and D. E. Over (1997) ‘Normal and abnormal reasoning in people with delusions’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36: 243–58.
105. Young and Bentall, ‘Probabilistic reasoning’, op. cit.
106. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, op. cit.
107. H. H. Farris and R. Revlin (1989) ‘Sensible reasoning in two tasks: rule discovery and hypothesis evaluation’, Memory and Cognition, 17: 221–32; J. E. Tschirgi (1980) ‘Sensible reasoning: a hypothesis about hypotheses’, Child Development, 51: 1–10.
108. R. P. Bentall and H. F. Young (1996) ‘Sensible-hypothesis-testing in deluded, depressed and normal subjects’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 168: 372–5.
109. A. W. Kruglanski and D. M. Webster (1996) ‘Motivated closing of the mind: “seizing” and “freezing” ’, Psychological Review, 103: 263–83.
110. G. Roberts (1991) ‘Delusional belief systems and meaning in life: a preferred reality?’ British Journal of Psychiatry, 159 (Supplement 14): 19–28.
111. R. P. Bentall and R. Swarbrick (in press) ‘The best laid schemas of paranoid patients’, Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice
112. S. M. Colbert and E. R. Peters (2002) ‘Need for closure and jumping-to-conclusions in delusion-prone individuals’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190: 27–31.
113. A.P. Morrison (1998) ‘Cognitive behaviour therapy for psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia’, in N. Tarrier, A. Wells and G. Haddock (eds.), Treating Complex Cases: The Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Approach. London: Wiley, pp. 195–216.
114. D. Freeman, P. A. Garety and E. Kuipers (2001) ‘Persecutory delusions: developing the understanding of belief maintenance and emotional distress’, Psychological Medicine, 31: 1293–306.
115. J. C. Rosen (1995) ‘The nature of body dysmorphobic disorder and treatment with cognitive behavior therapy’, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 2: 143–66.
Chapter 13 On the Paranoid World View
1. Quoted in J. Ronson (2001) Them: Adventures with Extremists. London: Picador.
2. Andrew Grove, Chief Executive Officer of the Intel Corporation, quoted in the New York Times, 18 December 1994.
3. For a full account, see R. P. Bentall, R. Corcoran, R. Howard, R. Blackwood and P. Kinderman (2001) ‘Persecutory delusions: a review and theoretical integration’, Clinical Psychology Review, 21: 1143–92.
4. Readers of a particularly obsessional bent will find these earlier versions (models 1.1, 2.1 and 3.1 respectively) described in the following publications: R. P. Bentall (1994) ‘Cognitive biases and abnormal beliefs: towards a model of persecutory delusions’, in A. S. David and J. Cutting (eds.), The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 337–60; R. P. Bentall, P. Kinderman and S. Kaney (1994) ‘The self, attributional processes and abnormal beliefs: towards a model of persecutory delusions’, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32: 331–41; R. P. Bentall and P. Kinderman (1998) ‘Psychological processes and delusional beliefs: implications for the treatment of paranoid states’, in S. Lewis, N. Tarrier and T. Wykes (eds.), Outcome and Innovation in the Psychological Treatment of Schizophrenia. Chicheste
r: Wiley, pp. 119–44.
5. The assumption that delusions reflect attempts to explain troubling experiences is apparent, for example, in Brendan Maher’s anomalous perception theory, in Chris Frith and Rhiannon Corcoran’s ideas about the role of theory-of-mind deficits in persecutory delusions, in the work that Sue Kaney, Peter Kinderman and I have conducted on paranoia, and also in Philippa Garety and David Hemsley’s studies of the way in which deluded patients reason about hypotheses.
6. K. M. Colby, S. Weber and F. D. Hilf (1971) ‘Artificial paranoia’, Artificial Intelligence, 2:1–25;K. M. Colby (1977) ‘Appraisal of four psychological theories of paranoid phenomena’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86: 54–9; K. M. Colby, W. S. Faught and R. C. Parkinson (1979) ‘Cognitive therapy of paranoid conditions: heuristic suggestions based on a computer simulation’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3: 55–60.
7. D. Freeman, P. Garety, D. Fowler, E. Kuipers, G. Dunn, P. Bebbington and C. Hadley (1998) ‘The London–East Anglia randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behaviour therapy for psychosis. IV: Self-esteem and persecutory delusions’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37: 415–30.
8. B. Bowins and G. Shugar (1998) ‘Delusions and self-esteem’, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43: 154–8.
9. C. Barrowclough, N. Tarrier, L. Humphreys, J. Ward, L. Gregg and B. Andrews (in press) ‘Self-esteem in schizophrenia: the relationship between self-evaluation, family attitudes and symptomatology’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
10. C. L. Candido and D. M. Romney (1990) ‘Attributional style in paranoid vs depressed patients’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 63: 355–63.
11. H. M. Lyon, S. Kaney and R. P. Bentall (1994) ‘The defensive function of persecutory delusions: evidence from attribution tasks’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 164: 637–46.
12. T. E. Oxman, S. D. Rosenberg, P. P. Schnurr and G. Tucker (1988) ‘Somatization, paranoia and language’, Journal of Communication Disorders, 21: 33–50.
13. P. Kinderman and R. P. Bentall (1996) ‘Self-discrepancies and persecutory delusions: evidence for a defensive model of paranoid ideation’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105: 106–14.
14. P. Kinderman (1994) ‘Attentional bias, persecutory delusions and the self concept’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 67: 53–66.
15. H. J. Lee (2000) ‘Attentional bias, memory bias and the self-concept in paranoia’, Psychological Science, 9: 77–99.
16. Lyon, Kaney and Bentall, ‘The defensive function of persecutory delusions’, op. cit.
17. R. P. Bentall and S. Kaney (1996) ‘Abnormalities of self-representation and persecutory delusions’, Psychological Medicine, 26: 1231–7. Another type of implicit self-measure, based on the self-referent encoding effect, was used in this study but produced more equivocal results. For simplicity, I have not described it in the main text.
18. C. F. Fear, H. Sharp and D. Healy (1996) ‘Cognitive processes in delusional disorder’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 168: 61–7.
19. P. Kinderman and R. P. Bentall (2000) ‘Self-discrepancies and causal attributions: studies of hypothesized relationships’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39: 255–73.
20. P. Trower and P. Chadwick (1995) ‘Pathways to defense of the self: a theory of two types of paranoia’, Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2: 263–78.
21. J. Gleick (1988) Chaos: Making a New Science. London: Heinemann.
22. R. P. Bentall and S. Kaney (1989) ‘Content-specific information processing and persecutory delusions: an investigation using the emotional Stroop test’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 62: 355–64; Fear, Sharp and Healy, ‘Cognitive processes in delusional disorder’, op. cit.
23. R. P. Bentall, S. Kaney and K. Bowen-Jones (1995) ‘Persecutory delusions and recall of threat-related, depression-related and neutral words’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19: 331–43; S. Kaney, M. Wolfenden, M. E. Dewey and R.P. Bentall (1992) ‘Persecutory delusions and the recall of threatening and non-threatening propositions’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31: 85–7.
24. P. J. Davis and M. G. Gibson (2000) ‘Recognition of posed and genuine facial expressions of emotion in paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenia’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 445–50; L. LaRusso (1978) ‘Sensitivity of paranoid patients to nonverbal cues’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87: 463–71.
25. E. Bodner and M. Mikulincer (1998) ‘Learned helplessness and the occurrence of depressive-like and paranoid-like responses: the role of attentional focus’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 1010–23.
26. D. T. Gilbert, B. W. Pelham and D. S. Krull (1988) ‘On cognitive busyness: when person perceivers meet persons perceived’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54: 733–40; D. T. Gilbert (1991) ‘How mental systems believe’, American Psychologist, 46: 107–19; D. T. Gilbert, S. E. McNutty, T. A. Giuliano and J. E. Benson (1992) ‘Blurry words and fuzzy deeds: the attribution of obscure behavior’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62: 18–25.
27. C. Frith (1994) ‘Theory of mind in schizophrenia’, in David and Cutting (eds.), The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia, op. cit., pp. 147–61; C. D. Frith (1992) The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
28. P. Kinderman, R. I. M. Dunbar and R. P. Bentall (1998) ‘Theory of mind deficits and causal attributions’, British Journal of Psychology, 71: 339–49.
29. J. Taylor and P. Kinderman (2002) ‘An analogue study of attributional complexity, theory of mind deficits and paranoia’, British Journal of Psychology, 93: 137–40.
30. O. Sabri, R. Erkwoh, M. Schreckenberger, A. Owega, H. Sass and U. Buell (1997) ‘Correlation of positive symptoms exclusively to hyperperfusion or hypoperfusion of cerebral cortex in never-treated schizophrenics’, Lancet, 349: 1735–9.
31. K. P. Ebmeir, D. H. R. Blackwood, C. Murray, V. Souza, M. Walker, N. Dougall, A. P. R. Moffoot, R. E. O’Carroll and G. M. Goodwin (1993) ‘Single photon emission computed tomography with 99m Tc-Exametazine in unmedicated schizophrenic patients’, Biological Psychiatry, 33: 487–95; R. D. Kaplan, H. Szechtman, S. Franco, B. Szechtman, C. Nahmias, E. S. Garnett, S. List and J. M. Cleghorn (1993) ‘3 clinical syndromes of schizophrenia in untreated subjects: relation to brain glucose activity measured by PET’, Schizophrenia Research, 11: 47–54; P. F. Liddle, K. J. Friston, C. D. Frith, S. R. Hirsch, T. Jones and R. S. Frackowiak (1992) ‘Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 160: 179–86.
32. N. Blackwood, R. J. Howard, D. H. ffytche, A. Simmons, R. P. Bentall and R. M. Murray (2000) ‘Imaging attentional and attributional biases: an fMRI approach to paranoid delusions’, Psychological Medicine, 30: 873–83.
33. B. Kirkpatrick and X. F. Amador (1995) ‘The study of paranoia and suspiciousness’, Biological Psychiatry, 38: 496–7.
34. W. Maier, D. Lichtermann, J. Minges and R. Heun (1993) ‘Personality disorders among the relatives of schizophrenia patients’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20: 481–93; E. Squires-Wheeler, A. E. Skodol, A. Bassett and L. Erlenmeyer-Kimling (1989) ‘DSM-III-R schizotypal personality traits in offspring of schizophrenic disorder, affective disorder, and normal control parents’, Journal of Psychiatric Research, 23: 229–39.
35. H. Schanda, P. Berner, E. Gabriel, M. L. Kronberger and B. Kufferle (1983) ‘The genetics of delusional psychoses’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 9: 563–70.
36. E. Zigler and M. Glick (1988) ‘Is paranoid schizophrenia really camouflaged depression?’, American Psychologist, 43: 284–90.
Chapter 14 The Illusion of Reality
1. Brian’s case is described in more detail in my earlier book with Peter Slade (P. D. Slade and R. P. Bentall (1988) Sensory Deception: A Scientific Analysis of Hallucination. London: Croom-Helm).
2. G. E. Berrios (1996) The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology since the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pre
ss.
3. J. Jaynes (1979) The Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. London: Penguin.
4. I. Leudar and P. Thomas (2000) Voices of Reason, Voices of Insanity: Studies of Verbal Hallucinations. London: Routledge.
5. J. Preuss (1975) ‘Mental disorders in the Bible and Talmud’, Israeli Annals of Psychiatry and Related Disciplines, 13: 221–38.
6. T. R. Sarbin and J. B. Juhasz (1967) ‘The historical background of the concept of hallucination’, Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 5: 339–58.
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