by Scott Oden
Nemes
The striped cloth headdress of the Egyptian pharaohs; it is worn with the uraeus (q.v.).
Nesaean stallion
A breed of horse from Media favored by Persian kings and noblemen. They were the consummate war horses, bred for strength and stamina as well as sheer equestrian beauty.
Nilometer
A device used to gauge the height of the Nile's flood each year. The rate of rise enabled area officials to predict periods of scarcity or of plenty, and gave them the ability to assess taxes on crops well in advance of harvest. Nilometers could take the form of a marked pillar driven into the river bed or a flight of steps cut into the bank (sometimes both).
Obelisk
(From Greek obelos, "spit"; Egyptian tekhenu.) A large foursided pillar tapering toward its top, which was carved into a small pyramid. Obelisks were staples of temple architecture and considered sacred to the solar deities of Egypt. Their surfaces were adorned with hieroglyphs, their pyramid tips sheathed in gold.
Osiris
Perhaps the most important god of the Egyptian pantheon, Osiris ruled the underworld where he served as the chief judge of the deceased, but he also represented fertility and renewed life. Though this duality made his position in Egyptian religion complex, it highlighted the simple concept behind all of Egypt's elaborate mortuary rituals: that from death there is life. Osiris was the template for all of their notions of life, death, and rebirth, and he was the conduit through which immortality of the soul could be achieved. In tomb carvings, artists depicted Osiris as a mummified figure wearing a tall, plumed crown adorned with a uraeus (q.v.), and holding the twin symbols of sovereignty, the crook and flail (q.v.).
Ostraka
(Greek "shards"; sing. ostrakon.) Fragments of pottery or stone that functioned much like modern notepads. Ancient Egyptians used ostraka for sketches, memos, letters, and bits of writing too transitory to be committed to a more expensive medium, such as papyrus.
Palestine
(Egyptian Re jenu; Persian Abarnahara, "Beyond the [Euphrates] River.") The ancient designation for the area between the Mediterranean coast, the desert of northern Arabia, and the Euphrates River, at times known as the Levant or Syria (not to be confused with the modern Middle Eastern nation). Palestine was a collection of fractious kingdoms, forever at war with one another unless cowed by one of the dominant superpowers of the era. The Pharaohs of Egypt's Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664–525 BCE) cultivated the region as a buffer between their borders and those of Persia and Babylon.
Panoplia
(Greek "war gear.") One of the many terms used by the Greeks to describe a complete set of armor and weapons. The panoplia of the average hoplite (q.v.) of the 6th century BCE included: a Corinthian helmet (q.v.), a bronze breastplate, bronze greaves to cover the leg from the knee down, a leather kilt reinforced with bronze studs, a bowl-shaped shield some three feet in diameter, a six-to-eight-foot-long spear, and a sword. The whole ensemble weighed close to seventy pounds, and though it afforded its wearer an unheard of level of protection, a man in full panoplia wasn't invulnerable; he could still receive fatal wounds in the neck, groin, and thigh.
Papyrus
(Egyptian djet.) The papyrus plant (Latin Cyperus papyrus) grew in abundance in the Nile valley and the marshes of the Delta, where it was used in the manufacture of rope, matting, baskets, sandals, and small boats. Its most celebrated use, though, was as a writing surface. Because papyrus was expensive to produce, it was reserved for religious texts and more important secular documents.
Peltasts
Originally, the term `peltast' applied only to Thracian tribesmen who fought in their native dress — cloak, boots, a fox skin cap, javelins, and a wickerwork shield called a peltal — but it became a generic catch-all term for any lightly armed infantry, including archers. Greek generals often employed peltasts to guard the vulnerable flanks of their phalanx (q.v.), or as skirmishers against enemy infantry and cavalry. See hoplites.
Phalanx
A formation of heavily armed and armored infantry, of variable length and usually a minimum of eight men deep, designed to decimate enemy soldiers through collision and shock (Greek othismos). Hoplites (q.v.) in a phalanx stood shoulder to shoulder, their shields interleaved, with the first three ranks of spears leveled to present a veritable hedge of cornel-wood and iron. They advanced to the music of flutes and horns, increasing speed as they neared their target; by the moment of impact, the phalanx was often moving at a run. This collision could obliterate a lesser armed force.
Though dangerous to face, a phalanx was by no means invulnerable. The formation could withstand cavalry attacks, but it was too slow to be a threat to massed horsemen. Also, the unshielded right flank of the phalanx was particularly susceptible to attack. Phalanx battles seldom lasted more than an hour or two.
Pharaoh
(Egyptian Per-a'a.) The title of Egypt's king, though originally the word signified the royal residence (much as modern Americans use `the White House' when referring to the President). Pharaoh was considered a living god, an embodiment of Horus (q.v.) and the literal son of Ra (q.v.). Like his brother and sister gods, Pharaoh was responsible for creating order from chaos. To make his will a reality, a vast bureaucracy grew around the throne, scribes and courtiers, priests and generals, all ideally working for the good of the land, for the good of Pharaoh, and for the good of the gods. This system of government worked only while the king could assert his authority. Weak pharaohs brought on the rapid dissolution of centralized power, and the inevitable civil wars as their successors sought to reestablish control.
Pillars of Herakles
The ancient name for the Straits of Gibralter, linking the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean.
Polemarch
Greek term for an officer in command of an army. In Men of Bronze, it is used to denote the rank directly beneath that of strategos (q.v.).
Precepts of Ptah-hotep
A didactic (or wisdom) manuscript dating to the Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BCE), which remained popular throughout Egypt's history. Ptah-hotep, a vizier and sage, extolled those virtues the gods find most pleasing: modesty, humility, truthfulness, selfcontrol, tact, and basic good manners. His Precepts offered advice on how best to deal with ones inferiors, peers, and superiors while remaining true to the spirit of ma at (q.v.).
Ptah
The patron god of craftsmen, who the Greeks identified with their own Hephaestus, held by the people of Memphis to have created the world, bringing it into being by thought and word alone. For the Egyptians, the heart contained the source of all intellect, which the tongue then articulated to make real. Ptah, by reciting a litany of names, produced Egypt, from its gods to its smallest grains of sand. The subtlety of Ptah's cosmogony made him somewhat obscure to the average Egyptian, whose understanding of the universe was limited by what they could see around them. Statues depicting Ptah showed an enigmatic man in the wrappings of a mummy, wearing a broad collar and holding the scepter of power.
Pylons
(Egyptian bekhnet.) The twin-towered gateways set into the walls of Egyptian temples, often decorated with carvings and reliefs of the gods and Pharaoh. The pylons mimicked the shape of the hieroglyph representing the horizon, the akhet, symbolizing the removal of the temple's sacred heartland from the physical world. They also served the more mundane function of guarding access to the temple grounds. A single temple could boast numerous pylons, each named for the ruler who ordered it built. The ruin of Amon's temple at Thebes (q.v.), Egypt's largest existing religious structure, has twelve.
Ra
Egypt's primary solar deity, who absorbed the attributes of many lesser gods before becoming fused with Amon (q.v.) by a process called syncretism. Ra, and later Amon-Ra, regulated the passing of hours, days, and years; seasons were his domain, and his energy and light made all life possible. During the Old Kingdom (2686–2125 BCE) it became widely accepted that Egypt's kings were the physical sons of Ra, a co
ncept that remained constant throughout the nation's history. The god took many forms, from a solar disk to a sacred beetle (scarab) to a man with the head of a falcon. Ra's cult center was at lunu (q.v.).
Royal Titular
The formal, five part name used by Pharaoh to signify his connection to the gods and his divine purpose. The parts of the titular were: the Horus name, linking Pharaoh as the true representative of Horus on earth; the Nebti, or Two Ladies, name; the Golden Horus name, signifying Pharaoh's divinity; the Nisut-Bit name, often preceded by the phrase "king of Upper and Lower Egypt", was the first cartouche name (Latin praenomen) and it was given to the king at coronation; finally, the Si-Ra name, "Beloved of Ra", the second cartouche name (Latin nomen) and often the king's own birth name. When expressed as a whole, the royal titular and its related epithets formed a kind of litany describing Pharaoh's strengths and the intended direction of his reign.
Sacred Flame
A primary component in the worship of the Persian god Ahuramazda (q.v.) was fire. The Sacred Flame, the light of divine Ahuramazda, was the ultimate expression of purity; nothing could be obscured in its glow, and the powers of Darkness, called "the Lie" could not suffer to be in its presence. The Sacred Flame accompanied the king on his travels and expeditions, along with a small army of priests to tend it, insuring a constant link with the divine heart of the god.
Sah
The "Fleet-Footed Long-Strider"; that constellation of stars known to the Greeks as Orion, the Huntsman.
Saqqara
The sprawling desert necropolis outside Memphis that has served as final resting place for kings and commoners throughout Egypt's long history. The Step Pyramid of Djoser dominates the area, the first Egyptian pyramid and one of the earliest stone buildings of its size in the world; countless other smaller pyramid complexes and mortuary temples surround it. Humans weren't Saqqara's only inhabitants. Animals had their place, as well, from the tombs of the Apis bulls in the Serapeum (q.v.), to the mummified cats entombed in the eastern cliff-face (a site known today as Abwab el-Qotat, the Doorways of the Cats).
Satrap
Persian term for the governor of a region whose power often approached that of a king. Indeed, many satraps were sovereigns before the Persians swallowed up their lands. Because of the exalted status of his underlings, the Persian monarch was referred to as the Great King or the King of Kings.
Scales of Justice
Located in the Halls of Judgement (q.v.), these gigantic scales were used by the god Anubis (q.v.) to weigh the heart of the deceased against the feather of Ma'at (q.v.), goddess of truth. A light or balanced heart guaranteed the deceased entry into the Gardens of Amenti (q.v.) and eternal bliss; a heavy heart meant utter destruction in the maw of Amemait (q.v.), who waited near the Scales to devour the wicked.
Sekhmet
The lion-headed goddess of fires and plagues. Egyptians in all eras regarded Sekhmet as violent and warlike, the personification of mankind's own vengeful nature. In myth, Amon-Ra sent her to punish humanity for their transgressions, through pestilence, famine, and outright slaughter. Once invoked, even the greatest of Egypt's gods found themselves hard-pressed to placate this powerful deity.
Sela
The one-time capital of ancient Edom (q.v.), Sela was at the heart of a series of easily-defensible gorges in the Shara Mountains (q.v.). The Arabian kings of Kedar (q.v.) drove the Edomites from Sela, leaving it open to occupation by tribes of semi-nomadic Nabatean Arabs. The site grew over time into an important trading center on the caravan road linking the Mediterranean with the rich incense groves of south Arabia. We know the city today as Petra, in modern Jordan.
Serapeum
A tomb complex on the desert ridge overlooking Memphis, in the shadow of the famed Step Pyramid of Djoser, built specifically for the interment of the sacred Apis bull. The Apis bull was the living theophany of the Memphite triad, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. Kept in royal splendor in the temple of Ptah (q.v.), when the bull died (after an average lifespan of eighteen years) the priests gave it a suitably royal funeral and conveyed it to its final resting place in the necropolis of Saqqara (q.v.). The Serapeum consisted of a series of underground vaults containing monolithic sarcophagi and all the attendant grave goods, such as Canopic jars (q.v.) and ushabti (q.v.), one would expect to find in a king's burial. Above ground, the Serapeum sported a sphinx-lined causeway and a mortuary temple.
Seth
(Egyptian Sutekh.) The villainous Lord of Confusion, murderer of Osiris (q.v.), usurper of the throne of Egypt, a god who haunted the desert regions and sent storms of sand, lightning, and thunder against the well-ordered heart of Egypt. Seth was the enemy of Horus (q.v.), personifying chaos and misrule against which the divine light of justice could flourish. One could not exist without the other; indeed, the Egyptians realized this and venerated Seth in their own way, albeit carefully. In reliefs, Seth was pictured as a man of forceful sexuality possessing the head of the mythical Typhonean animal — reminiscent of a jackal, but with short, blunt snout and slanted eyes.
Shadouf
An irrigation device consisting of a bucket at the end of a long, counter-weighted pole, allowing a single person to dip water from the Nile and transfer it to a cistern, ditch, or canal. The shadouf was introduced into Egypt by Asiatic invaders during the Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550 BCE). Unchanged, it has lasted to the modern era.
Shara Mountains
A range of jagged mountains dividing Arabia from Palestine, in the heart of what was once Edom (q.v.). Today, the area is part of southwestern Jordan. See Sela.
Shaykh
Archaic form of the Arabic title sheikh. Used here to denote the chieftain of a tribe of Bedouin.
Shedet
A city in the marshlands of the Faiyum, near Lake Moeris, Shedet served as the cult center for the worship of Sobek (q.v.). The Greeks knew it as Crocodilopolis, the City of Crocodiles (modern Medinet el-Faiyum).
Shenu
The carved oval that encircled the royal names of Pharaoh, found on carvings, paintings, sculpture, and papyri. The shenu represented Ra's eternal protection of the king. In modern Egyp tology, the shenu is known as a cartouche.
Sile
A fortified town on Egypt's northeastern frontier, Sile was part of the chain of fortresses known as the Walls of the Ruler (q.v.). Its location north of the vale of Tumilat (q.v.) made it the perfect base of operations for the Medjay, who could patrol the surrounding desert for signs of Bedouin raiders while guarding Tumilat's valuable springs and cisterns. Because of its Medjay garrison, Sile had a reputation for being rough-and-tumble.
Sinai
The desolate peninsula on Egypt's eastern border that served as a buffer with Palestine (q.v.). Mountainous inland and fading to rocky desert on its edges, the Sinai provided abundant mineral reserves — notably turquoise, copper, and tin — for the Egyptians to exploit. Clashes with the peninsula's Bedouin inhabitants were frequent, and the Egyptians often mounted punitive expeditions to re-establish control over the region's mines and quarries.
Sobek
An ancient Egyptian crocodile god considered one of the first beings to emerge from the watery chaos, called Nun, at the moment of creation. At Shedet (q.v.), in the Faiyum, the center of the worship of Sobek, crocodiles were held to be sacred. In other regions, though, priests ritually slaughtered the animals, equating Sobek with Seth (q.v.), the lord of confusion. In art, the Egyptians depicted Sobek either as a crocodile or as a man with a crocodile's head.
Sokar
The god of the necropolis at Memphis, worshiped in conjunction with Ptah (q.v.) and Osiris (q.v.) since the Old Kingdom (2686–2125 BCE). In some reliefs, Sokar is represented as a heavy-limbed dwarf attended by hawks; in others, as a mummiform figure with a hawk's head bearing crook, flail, and staff. See Saqqara.
Solar Barque of Ra
The great boat used by the sun god to traverse the sky; a poetic analogy for the sun.
Sphinx
A statue of a recumbent lion with a human or animal head used in temple architecture as guardians over the processional paths and entryways leading to the shrine's heart. The human-headed sphinxes symbolized Pharaoh's power as a living god.
Stelae
(Greek "standing stone"; sing. stela. Egyptian wedj.) An inscribed stone often erected to commemorate an event or to mark a boundary. Mortuary stelae often recounted the achievements of the deceased.
Strategos
Greek term for the general in command of an army.
Ta-Meht
The Egyptian name for the Nile delta; synonymous with the ancient kingdom of Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt, to the south, was known as Ta-Resu.
Tartarus
A cold, gray region of the Greek afterlife where the souls of men and women dwelt while awaiting their turn to drink the waters of the river Lethe ("Forgetfulness"). Chasms dotted the landscape of Tartarus, and in their depths black Hades, god of the dead, meted out punishment to the wicked. See Elysium.
Temple of the Hearing Ear
A niche or series of niches, some quite elaborate, in the outer court of a temple where common Egyptians could address their prayers to the gods. In our modern conception, a temple was a place where suppliants could go to converse with the gods through prayer, meditation, and sacrifice; to the Egyptians, a temple was the dwelling place of the gods, and as such, they were off limits to all but high ranking priests and Pharaoh. Only the outer courts were open to commoners, and through the temple of the Hearing Ear they had indirect access to the inner sanctuary.
Thebes
(Egyptian Waset, modern Karnak and Luxor.) A prominent city in upper Egypt from the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BCE) onward, and the center of the worship of Amon (q.v.). Thebes was located on the Nile's eastern shore, roughly 500 miles south of Memphis and modern Cairo. It stood across the river from a vast necropolis containing, after the pyramids at Giza, some of Egypt's most stunning mortuary complexes, including the rockcut tombs of the Valley of the Kings. Perhaps the city's greatest adornment, though, was the massive temple complex dedicated to Amon, called Ipet-isut (Egyptian "Most Select of Places"), approximately 247 acres of shrines, temples, gardens, lakes, and chapels. Taken as a whole, Ipet-isut represents the largest religious structure ever built by the hand of man. Though the capital shifted north to Sais during the Late Period (664–332 BCE), Thebes remained a significant force in national politics.