1342–9
Zealots seize control of Thessalonike
1351
Council in Constantinople approves doctrine of Hesychasm
1354
Ottoman forces cross Dardanelles and capture Gallipoli
1369
Ottomans capture Adrianople/Edirne
1396
Crusade of King Sigismund defeated at Nicopolis
1397–1402
Siege of Constantinople
1399–1403
Manuel II’s travels in Western Europe
1402
Timur (Tamerlane) defeats Ottomans at Ankyra, Sultan Bayezid and son Musa captured
1422
Sultan Murad II besieges Constantinople
1438/9
Council of Ferrara-Florence, another attempt at church union
1444
Murad II defeats Crusade of Christian forces at Varna
1453
29 May, Sultan Mehmed II captures Constantinople, death of
Constantine XI on the walls of the city
1460
Ottomans capture Mistras
1461
Ottomans capture Trebizond/Trabzon
Acknowledgements
In writing this book I gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the A. G. Leventis Foundation, the Michael Marks Charitable Trust, Dr Alkisti Soulogianni, Director of International Relations of the Ministry of Culture of the Hellenic Republic, and Professor Rick Trainor, Principal of King’s College London. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the departments of Classics and Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies who gave me time and encouragement.
For wise advice in the final stages of writing I thank in particular Stuart Proffitt, who went through the text twice. At a critical stage in composition Dr Alexandros Papaderos, Director of the Orthodox Academy of Crete, provided most generous hospitality. My friends Dionysios Stathakopoulos, Charlotte Roueché and Carol Krinsky found time to read drafts and make numerous improvements; Murat Belge, Neil Belton and Anthony Cheetham helped with their attention to detail; and reports by Bob Ousterhout and Chris Wickham and two other readers not identified by the publishers saved me from errors and suggested new topics to include in the final version.
I also thank Georgina Capel, for her enthusiastic support, Brigitta van Rheinberg for her belief in the end product, and Catherine Holmes, Demetra and Charalambos Bakirtzis, Cécile Morrisson, Archie Dunn, Elizabeth Jeffreys, Costas Kaplanis, Anna Contadini, Rustam Shukurov, Charalambos Bouras and Jessica Rawson for assistance with copies of rare books and articles, unpublished texts and guidance about finding others. Maria Vassilaki made it possible for me to accompany the pilgrimage to St Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai organized by the Society for the Preservation of the Greek Heritage, and I thank her, Lydia and Costas Carras and Anna Lea. Finally, I am especially grateful to Kallirroe Linardou for her help in finding the illustrations, and to Lioba Theis and the staffs of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts, Birmingham, the Byzantine Collection at Dumbarton Oaks, the Benaki Museum, Athens, and the Courtauld Institute of Art for their generous assistance.
More than ever, I acknowledge the constant support of those who lived with and campaigned for the book in all its stages: Anthony, Tamara and Portia.
Index
Aachen 67, 69, 208
Abbasid dynasty 125, 324
‘Abd al-Malik, Caliph 89, 92 Abdullah (a Muslim merchant) 250
Abydos 149, map 6
Achaia 292, map 6
Adam of Usk 313
administration
imperial 174–84
medieval 90–91
Roman 30–32
theme government 106–7, 132
See also legal system
Adrianople 5, 247, 284, 285, map 2 battle of 12
See also Edirne
Agnellus, Andreas 61, 69
Akroinon, battle of 109, map 3
Akropolites, George 302
Alamanopoulos, Gerard 248
Alaric 24
Albert of Aachen 257
Alexander, Emperor 104
Alexandria 25, 84, 204, 250, 262–3
Christianity in 38–9
legal centre 74
Alexios I Komnenos, Emperor 32, 183, 206, 246, 300
Alexias 232–41
coinage 224, 235–6
dynasty of 230
First Crusade 47, 255–6, 258
Alexios II Komnenos, Emperor 173, 191, 269
Alexios III Angelos, Emperor 262, 263, 267, 270, 282
Alexios IV Angelos, Emperor 20, 262–3, 271
alum mines 284
Amalfi 199, 207, 209, 216, 231, map 3
Amalasuntha 65
Amazons 52, plate 7
Ammianus Marcellinus 23
Amphilochios 128–30
Anastasios II, Emperor 15, 107, plate 8
Anastasius, Emperor 14, 54, 58, 63
Ancona 318, map 3
Andravida 272, map 6
Andronikos I Komnenos, Emperor 78, 191, 260, 273
Andronikos II Palaiologos, Emperor 303, 316
Andronikos III Palaiologos, Emperor 284, 316
Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Emperor 311, 312
Ankyra/Ankara 237, 314, 326, maps 3, 4, 5, 6
Anna of Savoy 284, 288, 290
Anna, wife of Vladimir of Kiev 189, 208, 213–14
Anthemius of Tralles56
Antony, St 40, 193
Antioch 25, 37, 38, 71, 73, 84–5, 144, 216, 237, maps 2, 3, 4, 5
and crusades 258–9
Apokaukos, Alexios 284–5
Apokaukos, John 77, 276
Apostoles, Michael 296–7
Aqaba (Eilat) 42, map 2
Aquinas, Thomas, St 200–201, 297, 302
Arabs
attacks on Byzantium 85–92, 107–8, 323–4
Byzantine frontier 145–6
See also Islam
Arcadius, Emperor 13, 23, 61
Archimedes 125, 279
Arethas 94, 132
Argyropoulaina, Maria 203, 205, 209
Argyropoulos, John 296–7
Arian theology, spread of 37–8, 62–4, 66–7
Aristotle 120, 229, 293, 296–7, 305, 328, 332
Arius 35–7
Armenia 18, 44, 144, 181, 315, maps 2, 3
Armenians 143, 144, 146, 199, 245, 246–7, 334
Arsenios of Nicaea, later Patriarch 279, 282
Arta, imperial centre 269, 271, 275–6, map 6
church of the Virgin Paregoritissa 276, plates 35, 36
artistic traditions
Byzantine 117, 137, 335
Christian 52–4, 95–6
secular 52, 103–4, 113, 141
See also icons
asceticism 40–43
astrology 123, 229
astronomy 86, 120, 123, 229, 274
Arabic 125–6, 274, 304
Athalaric 65
Athanasios, St 192, 196–7, 200
Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria 40
Athens 37, 74, 153, 217–18, 272, maps 3, 4, 6
Attila the Hun 24
Augustine, St 24, 37, 40, 46, 304–5
Autoreianos, Michael 277
Avars 15, 84, 92, 133, 308, map 3
Babylon 129, 244, 277, map 2
Baghdad 123, 125–6, 158, 176, 244, 314, 324, 328
Baldwin II, Latin Emperor 282, 300–301
Baldwin, Count of Flanders 263, 279
Balsamon, Theodore 75, 77
Barbaro, Nicolò310, 318
Barlaam of Calabria 200–201
Bari 205, 207, 209, 220, 239, map 4
Basil I, Emperor 17, 30, 75, 127, 136, 143–4, 146, 156, 183
Basil II, Emperor (The Bulgar-Slayer)156, 158, 189, 206, 212–19, plates 24, 28
Basil of Caesarea, St 37, 41, 43, 73, 101, 193, 208
Bayezid I, Sultan 312, 314, 325–6
Bekkos, John 301–2, 303
Belisarius, general 57, 58, 6
6
Benedict XVI, Pope 326–8
Benjamin of Tudela 244
Bertha (Eudokia) 188–9
Bertha of Sulzbach 249
Berytus/Beirut 71, 74, 144, maps 2, 4, 5
law school 71–2, 74
Bessarion, John, of Nicaea, Cardinal 274, 306, 309, 333
Bestes, Theodore 75
bezant xxiii, 21, 332
Blandina 34
Blastares, Matthew 77–8
Blues and Greens (circus factions, also called demes) 26–7, 54–5, 226
Boethius 65, 74, 304, 305
Bogomils 137
Bohemond 237, 258–9, 260
Boniface of Montferrat 270–71
Book of Ceremonies 177, 179
Boris the Bogomil 49, 236
Boris-Michael, Khan 128, 135–7
Boucicaut, Marshal 312
Branković, George of Serbia 307–8
Branos 284
Braudel, Fernand xv bread tokens 7–8, 25–6
Bryennios, Nikephoros 233–4, 238, 241
Bryer, Anthony 274
Bulgaria 135, 179, 182, 199, 303, 310
Christianity 135–7
independence 270
Bulgarians, defeat by Basil II 216–19
Bursa/Prousa 283–4, map 6
Green Mosque 316
Byzantion 5–6, 29
Byzantium cultural influence 203, 209–11
culture xv–xvi
expansion under Basil II 216
fragmentation post-1204 269–72, 300–301
influence on Ottomans 314–16
Islamic influence 323–9
legacies of 321–3
military campaigns 141–7
naming of 25
stereotypes xiv, 211, 267–8, 321
Caesarea 25, maps 2, 4, 5
See also Cappadocia
Calabria 207, 221, map 3
Cameron, Averil 59
Cappadocia 41, 155, 194, 197, map 3, plates 12, 13
Cassiodorus 63, 64, 65
Catalans 201, 242, 276, 291
census 30, 109, 152
Chalcedon see Oecumenical Councils
Chaldaean Oracles 229, 333
Chalkokondyles311
Chariton, St 40
Charles, kingof the Franks, also Charlemagne 31, 69, 87, 117, 189, 207, 211, 249, 261–2
Charles of Anjou 276, 290, 300, 303
Charles VI, Kingof France 312, 313, 314
Chioniades, Gregory 274, 304, 330
Chios 222, 270, 319, maps 2, 6
Chomatenos, Demetrios, Archbishop 44, 77, 275–6
Choniates, Michael 270
Choniates, Niketas 12, 20, 218, 260, 264
Chora monastery (Kariye Camii) 20, 184, 289, map 1, plates 26, 33
Chosroes II, Shah of Shahs 84–5, 308
Christianity
Act of Union (1439) 307–9
artistic traditions 52–4
education 120–21, 122
filioque clause 46, 261, 278, 296, 301, 302, 307
‘Great Schism’ 47, 210
Greek Orthodoxy 43–9, 328–9
icons 99–104, 105–6, 109–13
Latin-Greek union attemps 271–2, 278–80, 299–309
martyrs 33–4, 35
papal primacy 45, 261, 302, 307–9
pentarchy 38–9
pilgrimages 10, 194, 196, 256–7, 265
Purgatory 302–3
schisms between Rome and Constantinople 47, 94–5, 109, 210–211, 261, 306–9
Slavs, conversion of 131–8
spread of 33–8
theology of 35–9, 46–7, 94–6, 278–9, 299–303
vernacular language 131–8
See also crusades; iconoclasm; monasteries; Oecumenical Councils
Chronicle of the Morea 272
Chrysoloras, Manuel 312, 332, plate 40
Chrysopolis 4, 6
churches, building of 155–6
Cicero 22, 79, 120, 304
civil service 127, 172, 176
civil war (1341–7) 284–9
Clement IV, Pope 301
Clement, St 132, 134
clocks 13, 18, 29, 59, 64, 180
clothing 6, 166, 176, 210, 211, 230, 240, 246, 264, 287
coins 151, 153–4, 159, 322
of Constantine I 7, plate 22a
devaluation 222–4
Empress Irene 111, plate 11c
of Justinian II 96, 153, plate 11b
nomisma 7, 153, 222–4
religious images on 96, 104
Scandinavian 245
See also bezant
Conrad, Emperor of Germany 261
Conrad of Montferrat 260
Constans II, Emperor 83, 91–2, 97
Constantine I plate 22a
burial of 10
Christianity 8–10, 35–6
cult of 11
founds Constantinople 3, 5–7
rule of 4–11, 23, 25–6
Constantine IV, Emperor 92
Constantine V, Emperor 17, 68, 109–10, 112, 115, 185–6, 207
Constantine VI, Emperor 111, 132, 148
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, Emperor plate 11d
assassination attempt 180
birth of 187
books of guidance 177, 181–3, 188–9
court ceremonies 157, 163–4, 166, 177–8
dynasty 146–7, 207
Greek fire142
inheritance 188
library of 30, 129
Constantine VIII, Emperor 189, 213, 215
Constantine IX Monomachos, Emperor 45, 47, 76, 190, 199, 210, 221–6, plate 17
Constantine X Doukas, Emperor 230
Constantine XI Palaiologos, Emperor 22, 32, 184, 316, 317–20, 329
Constantine, Bishop of Nakoleia 108
Constantinople map 1
building of 3, 5–7, 9–10
Byzantine rule restored (1261) 282
churches: St Akakios 10; Blachernai 10, 19, 75, 104; Holy Apostles 9–10, 20, 205, 282, 320; St Irene 110; St John at Hebdomon 219;
St Mokios 10; Pharos 17, 185;
St Polyeuktos 56, 205, 265;
Hagia Sophia xvi–xvii, 19, 50–51, 54, 56–60, 85, 113, 117, 132, 144, 222, 246, 282, 288, 291, 308, plates 16, 17, 18;
Virgin at Pege 166
conquest by Ottoman Turks (1453) 20, 314, 319–20, 333
education 126
Eparch 26, 74, 75, 156, 158
foreigners 157–8, 242–51
monasteries 43; Chora 20, 184, 289;
Dalmatou 197; Evergetis 197;
Kecharitomene 234; Lips 156;
Pantokrator 228, 308; Stoudios 43, 115, 126, 194, 195, 197
monuments: Aqueduct of Valens 14, 15, 17, 110, plate 5;
Blachernai Palace 28, 183, 246, 263; cisterns 6, 8, 14–15, 17, 29;
honorary columns 6, 14, 90, 282;
harbours 14, 54, 321; Galata/Pera 21, 244, 282; Golden Horn 5, 14, 50, 245; Great Palace 29–30, 170–71, 185; Hippodrome 3, 5, 7, 8, 13, 26–8, 30, 170, 180, 205, 222; Kynegion 123; Long
Walls 14; Magnaura Palace 126, 166, 171; Mangana Palace 222;
Orphanotropheion 164, 166, 234; temples 6, 31; Walls of
Theodosius 5, 14, 90, plate 3
mosques: Fatih Camii (Mosque of the Conqueror) 20, 59–60, 320;
Kalenderhane Camii xxi; Sultan Ahmet Camii (Blue Mosque) 21, 60, 316
New Rome 6–8, 13–14, 24–5
Ottoman rule 333–4
population 16–18
rebuildingby Justinian I 56–60
and Rome 45–78, 109, 210–11, 261, 299–309
sack of (1204) 20, 263–5, 266–9, 332
sieges 15–16, 107–8, 312, 317–20
trade 149–50, 250
water supply 14–15
wealth of 19–20, 87, 150, 226, 264
Constantius II, Emperor 10
Cook, Michael 88
Copts 39
Cordoba xxii, 30, 86, 178, 328
>
Corfu 132, 275, map 3
Corpus Iuris Civilis 72, 74
Cosmas Indicopleustes 322
Corinth 94, 153, 270, map 4
court
ceremonies of 170–71, 177–81, 183–4
eunuchs 165–8
hierarchy 156–7, 172–3, 175–6
records of 174–84
status symbols 142–3
women’s roles 172–4
See also emperors
Crete 25, 107, 143, 144, 176, 197, 269, 271, 309, 318, maps 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Croatia 182
Crone, Patricia 88
crusades 255–65, 300, 307–8, 312
First 257–8, 265
Second 239–40, 249, 259–60, 261–2
Third 260, 262, 270
Fourth 18, 260, 262–3, 265, 267
Ctesiphon 84, 86, map 2
currency see coins
Cyprus xxi, 25, 91, 144, 222, 237, 270, 272, 331, maps 2–6
Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria 39
Cyril, St 131–8
Cyrillic alphabet 131
Dalassene, Anna 233, 235
Damascus, Islamic capital 83, 86, 144, 250, 259, 314, 324, maps 2, 4, 5
Damian, Peter, St 203, 209, 211
Dandolo, Enrico 263–4
Danelis, widow 168
Daniel, monk 18
Daphni, monastery 272, plate 34
de la Roche family 271
Demetrios, St 84, 249
demokratia 226–7, 282
Didymoteichon 284, map 6
Digenes Akrites 145, 167, 227, 249
Diocletian, Emperor 4, 23, 28, 35
Dionysius of Tel-Mahre 83
Dionysius (‘the small’) 73
Diophantos 126, 305, 333
Dioskorides 30, plate 41
Dnieper, River 181–2, map 3
domed buildings 51, 56–7
Domenican friars 279, 282
Doukaina, Irene 191, 232, 234, 235
Doukas family 190–91, 225, 230
Doukas, Constantine 232–3
Dyrrachion 132, 206, 217, 222, 239, maps 3, 4
earthquakes 17, 310
economy 148–59
Edessa 101, maps 2, 4
Edirne 275, 310, 316, map 6
education
Christian 120–21, 122
literary 119–21
Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire Page 44