100. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso,” 251.
101. Gabriel Tarde, Criminalité Comparée (Paris: F. Alcan, 1886) quoted in Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso,” 280.
102. Cited in Gibson, Born to Crime, 35.
103. Raffaello Garofalo, Criminology (Boston: Little, Brown, 1914), 95, cited in Gibson, Born to Crime, 36.
104. Gibson, Born to Crime, 35–36.
105. Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 128.
106. Clouston, “The Developmental Aspects of Criminal Anthropology,” 218 (emphasis added).
107. Ibid., 219.
108. Ibid., 225.
109. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 28.
110. Richard Bach Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology and Anarchist Terrorism in Spain and Italy,” Mediterranean Historical Review 16, no. 2 (December 2001): 31–44 (quote on 36).
111. Robert Nye, “Heredity or Milieu: The Foundations of European Criminological Theory,” Isis 67 (1976): 335–55.
112. But see Martin S. Staum, Labeling People: French Scholars on Society, Race and Empire, 1815–1848 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 167.
113. On the role that the Congresses played in the emergence of criminology see Martine Kaluszynski, “The International Congresses of Criminal Anthropology: Shaping the French and International Criminological Movement, 1886–1914,” in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell, Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
114. Lacassagne (1885) cited in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 109.
115. Gibson, Born to Crime, 42.
116. On the biometric school see Donald A. Mackenzie, Statistics in Britain, 1865–1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981); and Michael Cowles, Statistics in Psychology: An Historical Perspective (Mahway: LEA, 2001).
117. On Bertillon’s anthropometry see Allan Sekula, “The Body and the Archive,” October 39 (1986), 3–64; and Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, chap. 5.
118. On Tarde see Christian Borch, “Urban Imitations: Tarde’s Sociology Revisited,” Theory, Culture and Society 22, no. 3 (2005): 81–100.
119. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 348.
120. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 140.
121. Staum, Labeling People, 167.
122. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 346.
123. Gibson, Born to Crime.
124. Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 36.
125. Ibid., 37.
126. Lombroso, Gli Anarchici (1894), 21, quoted by Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 33.
127. Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 35.
128. Ibid., 40.
129. Ibid.
130. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 39.
131. Koch (1894) in Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 54.
132. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 47.
133. Ibid., 297–98.
134. Roland Grassberger, “Hans Gross,” 1847–1915, in Pioneers of Criminology, ed. H. Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1972), 305–17 (quote on 307).
135. Lombroso-Ferrero (1911), 135, quoted in Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 106.
136. Lombroso (1876) quoted in Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, Criminal Man by Cesare Lombroso (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 24.
137. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 17.
138. Although all ended up as ingredients in the modern criminological mixture, at the time “they were discrete forms of knowledge, undertaken for a variety of different purposes, and forming elements within a variety of different discourses, none of which corresponded exactly with the criminological project that was subsequently formed.” Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 28.
139. Ibid.
140. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 15.
Chapter 2. “A vast plain under a flaming sky”: The Emergence of Criminology
Epigraph. Jarkko Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate: Nineteenth-century Degeneration Theory and Psychopathy Research,” Theory and Psychology 16 (2006): 419.
1. Marie-Christine Leps, Apprehending the Criminal: The Production of Deviance in Nineteenth-Century Discourse (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 67.
2. Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 7; Mary Gibson, Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 7.
3. Robert Nye, “Heredity or Milieu: The Foundations of European Criminological Theory,” Isis 67 (1976): 336.
4. Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 57; David Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals: The Development of Criminology in Britain,” in Mike Maguire, Rod Morgan, and Robert Reiner, The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 32–33.
5. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, chap. 3.
6. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 33.
7. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 226.
8. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 12.
9. Peter J. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre in Law, Literature and Aesthetics (London: Routledge, 2001), 185.
10. David G. Horn, The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance (London: Routledge, 2003), 29.
11. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 118.
12. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 111; Gibson, Born to Crime, 2.
13. Mary Gibson, Born to Crime, 3.
14. Lombroso (1871) quoted in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 126.
15. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 128.
16. Lombroso (1894) quoted in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 119.
17. Gibson, Born to Crime, chap. 1.
18. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 113.
19. Gibson, Born to Crime.
20. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 136.
21. Horn, The Criminal Body, chap. 6.
22. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 345.
23. Gibson, Born to Crime, 6.
24. Gibson, Born to Crime, 129.
25. Neil Davie, Tracing the Criminal: The Rise of Scientific Criminology in Britain, 18601918 (Oxford: Bardwell Press, 2006).
26. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 178.
27. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 16.
28. Ibid., 216–17.
29. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 182.
30. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 224.
31. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 150.
32. Tarde (1886) in Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, 51.
33. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, chap. 3.
34. T. S. Clouston, “The Developmental Aspects of Criminal Anthropology,” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 23 (1894): 221 (emphasis in original).
35. Clouston (1906) quoted in Roger Smith, “‘Inhibition’ and the Discourse of Order,” Science in Context 5, no. 2 (1992): 237–63.
36. Smith, “‘Inhibition’ and the Discourse of Order,” 248.
37. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 11–12.
38. Mayhew (1862) quoted in Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 24–25.
39. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 233.
40. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 234. For an excellent account of the troubled workings of a mid-Victorian local prison that examines prison discipline beyond the Benthamite vision, see Richard W. Ireland, “A Want of Order and Good Discipline”: Rules, Discretion and the Victorian Prison (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2007).
41. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 36.
42. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 35.
43. “The Romance of Crime, Criminal and Police,” The Belfast News-Letter (Belfast), Issue 26020, Tuesday, December 27, 1898, 5.
> 44. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 217.
45. Lombroso clearly was a household name in Britain, contrary to what Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 180, claims. His ideas were regularly discussed—often skeptically—in metropolitan and provincial papers such as The Pall Mall Gazette, The London Graphic, The Glasgow Herald, the Aberdeen Weekly Journal, and the Hampshire Telegraph and Sussex Chronicle. See Helen Zimmern, “Professor Lombroso’s New Theory of Political Crime,” Blackwood’s Magazine 49 (1891): 202–11; Isabel Foard, “The Criminal: Is He Produced by Environment or Atavism?” Westminster Review 150 (1898): 90–103.
46. Davie, Tracing the Criminal, chap. 5.
47. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 189–203.
48. Ellis (1890) quoted in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 178.
49. Havelock Ellis, “Retrospect of Criminal Anthropology,” Journal of Mental Science 37 (1891): 299–309, 458–64.
50. “British Medical Congress,” The Bristol Mercury and Daily Post (Bristol), Issue 14425, Saturday, August 4, 1894, 5.
51. Havelock Ellis, “Retrospect of Criminal Anthropology,” 459. An important figure in the dissemination of criminal anthropology in Britain, Morrison wrote the introduction to the English translation of Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero, The Female Offender (New York: D. Appleton, 1895). See also L. Gordon Rylands, Crime: Its Causes and Remedy (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1889).
52. Quoted in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 183.
53. Major Arthur Griffiths, Mysteries of Crime and Police, 2 vols. (London: Cassell, 1899); Griffiths, Fifty Years of Public Service (London: Cassell, 1904).
54. Quoted in Davie, Tracing the Criminal, 234.
55. Ibid., 235.
56. Darwin (1914–15) quoted in Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 358.
57. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 41.
58. Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6.
59. Lombroso-Ferrero, xxix, in Nicole Hahn Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology: Its Reception in the United States and the Nature of Its Appeal,” in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell, Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 180–81.
60. Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 125.
61. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology.”
62. Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 115.
63. Joseph Jastrow, “A Theory of Criminality,” Science 8, no. 178 (July 2, 1886): 20–22.
64. Ibid., 22.
65. Robert Fletcher, “The New School of Criminal Anthropology,” American Anthropologist 4, no. 3 (1891): 201–36.
66. Ibid., 206.
67. See Havelock Ellis and Alexander Winter, The New York State Reformatory in Elmira (London: S. Sonnenschein, 1891); Francis J. Lane, Twelve Years in a Reformatory: A Report of the Activities and Experiences of a Catholic Chaplain During Twelve Years’ Service in the Elmira Reformatory (New York: The Elmira Reformatory, 1934). See also H. S. Williams, “Can the Criminal Be Reclaimed?” North American Review 163, no. 2 (1896): 207–18, who cites the reforms of Elmira as evidence that challenges criminal anthropology.
68. Fletcher, “The New School of Criminal Anthropology,” 232.
69. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—V: Criminal Anthropology,” Science 19, no. 483 (May 6, 1892): 255.
70. D. G. Brinton. “Current Notes on Anthropology.—XLI: The So-called ‘Criminal Type’” Science 23, no. 579 (March 9, 1894): 127.
71. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—XLI,” 127.
72. Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 117–18. In all, Rafter has identified nine authors— three social welfare workers, three educators, and three ministers—whom she considers to be the main protagonists of “the concept of the criminal as a physically distinct, atavistic human being.”
73. Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 120.
74. Lydston (1904) quoted in Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 124.
75. McKim (1900) quoted in Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 124 (emphases in original).
76. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology,” 166.
77. Horn, The Criminal Body, 133–34.
78. Mary Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology, 1880–1920,” in Crime and Culture: An Historical Perspective, ed. Amy Gilman Srebnick and René Lévy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 37–47. Quote on 39.
79. Jarkko Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate: Nineteenth-century Degeneration Theory and Psychopathy Research,” Theory and Psychology 16 (2006): 419.
80. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 38.
81. Ibid., 40.
82. Quoted in Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 112.
83. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 42.
84. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 109–10.
85. Kelly Hurley, The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-de-Siècle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 95.
86. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 72–73.
87. Ibid., 129.
88. Ibid., 148–58.
89. Ibid., 131–32.
90. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology.”
91. Ibid., 40–47.
92. Ibid., 47.
93. Bela Földes, “The Criminal,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 69, no. 3 (September 1906): 567.
94. “An Epidemic of Kissing in America: A Novel Subject Treated from an Entirely New Point of View by Professor Lombroso, the Famous Italian Psychologist,” The Pall Mall Gazette 10707, July 21, 1899, 10.
95. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII: The Criminal Anthropology of Woman,” Science 19, no. 487 (June 3, 1892): 316.
96. Adalbert Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso: A Glance at His Life Work,” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 1, no. 2 (July 1910): 73.
97. Havelock Ellis, The Criminal, 5th ed. (London: Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1914), 250.
98. Hurley, The Gothic Body, 93.
99. Marvin E. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” in Pioneers in Criminology, ed. Hermann Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith Publishing, 1972), 262.
100. Quoted in Jalava, “The Modern Degenerate,” 418.
101. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology.”
102. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, 44.
103. Ibid., 48.
104. Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, 113.
105. Quoted in Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” 261.
106. Gustave Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” Charities Review 6, no. 2 (April 1897): 112. Gustave Tarde was at the Bureau of Statistics at the Ministry of Justice in Paris.
107. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology,” 159.
108. Ibid., 176.
109. Ibid., 178.
110. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 23.
111. Ottolenghi (1908) quoted in Gibson, Born to Crime, 135.
112. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 110.
113. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” 232.
114. Ibid., 287.
115. Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso,” 72.
116. Alfred Lindesmith and Yale Levin, “The Lombrosoian Myth in Criminology,” The American Journal of Sociology 42 (1937): 654.
117. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 40.
118. Richard Bach Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology and Anarchist Terrorism in Spain and Italy,” Mediterranean Historical Review 16, no. 2 (December 2001): 36.
119. Richard F. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal: A History of German Criminology, 18801945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 53.
120. Quoted in Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (London: Penguin Books, 1981), 135.
121. In Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 121.
122. Tarde, “Is There a Cri
minal Type?”
123. Mary S. Gibson, “Cesare Lombroso and Italian Criminology: Theory and Politics,” in Becker and Wetzell, Criminals and their Scientists, 141.
124. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 30.
125. Horn, The Criminal Body, 133.
126. Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 31.
127. Cesare Lombroso, “Atavism and Evolution,” Contemporary Review 68 (July/December 1895): 42–49.
128. Max Weber, “The Sociology of Charismatic Authority/The Nature of Charismatic Authority and Its Routinization,” in The Celebrity Culture Reader, ed. P. David Marshall (London: Routledge, 2006), 60.
129. Ibid., 56.
130. Ibid., 61.
131. Charles Thorpe and Steven Shapin, “Who Was J. Robert Oppenheimer?: Charisma and Complex Organization,” Social Studies of Science 30 (2000): 580.
132. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 149.
133. Quoted in Wetzell, Inventing the Criminal, 56–57.
134. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 112.
135. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, 220.
136. Ibid.
137. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 109.
138. Ibid.
139. Ibid.
Chapter 3. “Supposing that Truth is a woman—what then?”: The Enigma of Female Criminality
Epigraphs. Sigmund Freud, “Three Essays on Sexuality,” in Peter Gay, ed. The Freud Reader (London: Vintage, 1995): 248; Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, trans. R. J. Hollingworth (London: Penguin, 1973), 164.
1. Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
2. Quoted in Ornella Moscucci, “Hermaphroditism and Sex Difference: The Construction of Gender in Victorian England,” in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780–1945, ed. Marina Benjamin (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 174.
3. Elaine Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (London: Bloomsbury, 1991), 129.
4. Frances Power Cobbe, “Criminals, Idiots, Women and Minors,” Fraser’s Magazine 78 (December 1868): 777–94.
5. Beverly Brown, “Women and Crime: The Dark Figures of Criminology,” Economy and Society 15 (1986): 401.
The Truth Machine Page 27