Roosevelt as Chief Executive. Excerpts from Smith Diary are by dates indicated. More orthodox aspects of Roosevelt’s administrative record: Barry Dean Karl, Executive Reorganization and Reform in the New Deal (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963). Roosevelt’s assumption of different roles: Burns. For shrewd comments on Roosevelt as chief executive in the broadest, political sense, see Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power (Wiley, 1960), which also throws light on Roosevelt’s war leadership; see especially pp. 214-215.
Stimson on Roosevelt as administrator: Stimson Diary, Jan. 23, 1943, Feb. 3, 1943, March 28, 1943, May 4, 1943; Stimson to Burlingham, March 13’943 Stimson Papers, Box 400; Stimson to Horner, May 7, 1943, Stimson Papers, Box 401; see also (for Hull’s views) Blum2, pp. 241-242. Cox’s criticism: Cox to Lubin, Oct. 12, 1942, Cox Diary, FDRL. For a measured critique just after Pearl Harbor on the implications of the British and French war administrative experience for the United States, see Frankfurter to Roosevelt, Dec. 17, 1941, with enclosure, Freedman, pp. 628-632; see also Cox’s call for a war secretariat in diary item cited above. Japan Times-Advertiser comment on Roosevelt as chief executive: FCC recording, from Domei transmission in English, OWI, Oct. 1, 1942, FDRL. Roosevelt on controlling the Treasury, etc.: Eccles, p. 336. Kennan’s visit to Washington: Kennan1, pp. 145-161; memo on War Department meeting, Nov. 2, 1943, PSF, Portugal. Stettinius to Roosevelt, Nov. 8, 1943, PSF, Portugal; for different perspectives, see Hull, pp. 1335-1344; Stimson Diary, Nov. 2, 1943, Nov. 9, 1943. Roosevelt’s reluctance to make military manpower or spending commitments more than a year ahead: Roosevelt to Smith, June 8, 1942; Roosevelt to Marshall, June 10, 1942; Roosevelt to Stimson and Marshall, Aug. 11, 1942, Smith Diary, FDRL; PSF, War Department Folder. Harold Smith on budgeting and planning: Smith Diary, Aug. 31, 1943, pp. 6-7, FDRL. “Layering” and the Office of War Mobilization: Somers. Roosevelt hating to fire: Smith Diary, Sept. 26, 1941, FDRL; Flynn, p. 226. Gulick observations: Luther Gulick, “War Organization of the Federal Government,” American Political Science Review, Dec. 1944, pp. 1166-1179.
CHAPTER TWELVE
The main records of the building of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial: OF 1505. See Roosevelt to Daniel C. Roper, Dec. 27, 1937, OF 1505, Box 1; see also PPF 5319 and OF 4077 for Roosevelt’s intense personal interest in the planning and building of the memorial. Roosevelt and the cherry-tree ladies: Hassett, p. 19. Moore speech: NYT, April 14, 1943, p. 16. Roosevelt’s warning against silk hats: RB to Watson, March 24, 1943, OF 1505, Box 2. His address, April 13, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 162-164; Edith Helm Papers, Cont. 9, 1943, LC.
“A World Forged Anew.” Roosevelt on the presidency as a place of moral leadership: NYT, Nov. 13, 1932, VIII, p. 1. Wallace on the century of the common man: Lord, pp. 492, 494-496. Willkie: quotations from Willkie, pp. 178, 178-179. Other views: roundups in PM, Dec. 11, 1942, Jan. 5, Jan. 11, 1943, March 16, March 31, 1943, April 14, 1943. Development of Roosevelt’s views on world security and organization: Range; PPA, 1943, pp. 5, 30, 87; Roosevelt to Norris, Sept. 21, 1943, PL, pp. 1446-1447; Burns, pp. 318-319, 523-524; Clapper Papers, Cont. 23, interview with Hopkins, Feb. 11, 1943, LC; Robert A. Divine, The Illusion of Neutrality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). Administration views: Clapper Papers, Cont. 23, interview with Welles, Nov. 19, 1942; interview with Hull, Nov. 23, 1942, LC; Vandenberg, p. 43 (April 7, 1943 diary notation); see also Burns, chaps. 4, 7, 13, 19, and passim. Roosevelt on role of Big Four: PC 916, Sept. 7, 1943; PPA, 1943, p. 376. Roosevelt on concrete postwar arrangements: Roosevelt to Hull, April 9, 1943, 800.50/626, CF, SD Files, NA; see, generally, Kolko, chap. 11. Straight’s book: Michael Straight, Make This the Last War (Harcourt, Brace, 1943). Vandenberg’s views: Vandenberg, pp. 39, 43, 45, 47-48, 50. Hopkins on Roosevelt’s caution: Clapper interview with Hopkins, Feb. 11, 1943, Clapper Papers, LC.
State of the Union address, Jan. 7, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 30-31. Beveridge plan: William Beveridge, Social Insurance and Allied Services (Macmillan, 1942); for a contemporary report, see Richard Lee Strout, “The Beveridge Report,” The New Republic, Dec. 14, 1942, pp. 784-786. Roosevelt on the “Roosevelt plan”: Perkins, p. 283. Popular attitudes toward expanded Social Security: Cantril Notebook. II, pp. 64-73. GI Bill of Rights: PPA, 1943, pp. 449-453. Rider ending Roosevelt’s authority to limit salaries: PPA, 1943, pp. 157-160. Tax situation generally: Paul, pp. 144-145. Roosevelt on tax forgiveness, May 17, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 209-210. Congressional action: Young, pp. 130-136. Morgenthau and Roosevelt on tax struggle: Blum2, pp. 64-70; Paul, pp. 145-147. Roosevelt on the administration as one big family: Blum2, p. 68. Roosevelt on medical insurance: Blum2, p. 72.
The Broken Pledge. Roosevelt to Churchill on talks with Eden: FRUS, 1943, Vol. III, pp. 1-3. Hull’s return to Washington: Hull, p. 1213. Roosevelt on postponing discussion of immediate postwar arrangements: Clapper Papers, Cont. 23, Feb. 11, 1943, LC. Roosevelt on announcement of his discussions with Eden: FRUS, 1943, Vol. III, p. 5. Roosevelt-Eden discussions: FRUS, 1943, Vol. III, especially pp. 13-18, 25-26, 35, 36, 39; Eden, pp. 373, 377; Sherwood, pp. 707-720. Roosevelt on results of discussions: Churchill4, p. 738; PC 888, March 30, 1943; PPA, 1943, pp. 133-134. Eden on Roosevelt as conjuror: Eden, pp. 373-374. Questions about Stalin’s postwar plans: FRUS, 1943, Vol. III; Eden, p. 373. Davies mission to Moscow: Davies Papers, Box 13, LC. Roosevelt’s invitation to Stalin: Correspondence2, pp. 63-64. Journey of Churchill and party to the United States: Ismay, p. 294; Churchill4, p. 788. U.S. Joint Chiefs’ preparation: Stimson Diary, May 12, 1943; Matloff, p. 69. The Washington discussions in May are well covered in Stimson Diary, May 1943; Churchill4; Sherwood; Brooke; Ismay; see Ismay, pp. 296-298, for an excellent summary of the British and American approaches.
Roosevelt’s and Churchill’s letter to Stalin: Churchill4, pp. 812-813; Correspondence2 (received June 4, 1943), pp. 67-69. Davies in Moscow: Sulzberger, p. 213. Davies’s report to Roosevelt: Davies Papers, June 3, 1943, LC. Stalin’s letter agreeing to meet in July or August: Correspondence2, p. 66 (Stalin indicated the place—Fairbanks—orally through Davies). Stalin’s response to postponement of second front: Stalin to Roosevelt, June 11, 1943, Correspondence2, pp. 70-71. Polish-Soviet developments: FRUS, 1943, Vol. III, pp. 329, 362, 373-374, 396. Major items on diplomatic correspondence between the Polish government and the President are in PSF, Poland; see also Werth, Pt. 6, chap. 6; Churchill4, pp. 757-761; and for the Polish case, Bronislaw Kusnierz, Stalin and the Poles (London: Hollis & Carter, 1949). Roosevelt’s attempt to conciliate Stalin: Roosevelt to Stalin, Correspondence2, p. 61. Stalin’s reactions and reflections: Correspondence1and Correspondence2; Maisky, pp. 351, 361, 362; Deutscher, pp. 478-479; Ehrenburg; Berezhkov, Pt. II. Origins of the Cold War: Williams, especially chap. 6; D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins (Doubleday, 1961); Louis J. Halle, The Cold War as History (Harper, 1967); John Lukacs, A History of the Cold War (Doubleday, 1961); Paul Seabury, The Rise and Decline of the Cold War (Basic Books, 1967); Andre Fontaine, History of the Cold War (Pantheon, 1968).
The King’s First Minister. Roosevelt’s attitude toward China: Sherwood; Blum2; see especially Morgenthau Diary (China), p. 658; Sherwood, p. 925. Chiang on the end of extraterritorial rights: quoted in Feis2, p. 62. Roosevelt on repeal of exclusion laws, Oct. 11, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 427-428. Rumors of Chinese separate peace with Japan: Feis2, p. 61. Stilwell’s skepticism: Romanus and Sunderland2, chap. 7. Stilwell on Chinese military condition: Romanus and Sunderland2. Chennault’s plan and assurances to Roosevelt: Claire Lee Chennault, Way of a Fighter (Putnam, 1949), pp. 212-214, quoted in Romanus and Sunderland2, pp. 252-253. Madame Chiang Kai-shek’s visit to the United States: Sherwood, pp. 660, 706-707; Time, March 1, 1943, pp. 9-10, 23-26; PC 88i, Feb. 19, 1943; PPA, 1943, pp. 100-108; Stimson Diary, May 4, 1943; Perkins, p. 74; Eden, p. 377. Roosevelt to Marshall on dealing with Chiang, March 8, 1943: quoted in Romanus and Sunderland2, pp. 279-280. Marshall’s reply, March 16, 1943, is quoted in Romanus and Sunderland2, pp. 280-282. See, generally, Woodward
, chap. 24.
Stilwell on calling Chiang’s bluff: Romanus and Sunderland2, p. 278. Roosevelt’s anticolonial views: Foster Rhea Dulles and Gerald E. Ridinger, “The Anti-Colonial Policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt,” Political Science Quarterly, March 1955, pp. 1-18. The administration’s views of the U.S. record in the Philippines: Hull, p. 1491; Clapper interview with Hopkins, Feb. ii, 1943, Clapper Papers, LC; PPA, 1942, p. 474; Clapper interview with Wallace, Dec. 7, 1942, Cont. 23, Clapper Papers, LC. Roosevelt’s criticism of Western colonial record, following Casablanca Conference: PC 879, Feb. 12, 1943; PPA, 1943, p. 86. Philippine wartime developments: Stimson Diary, Aug. 12-Sept. 5, 1943; Elmer Davis to Roosevelt, June 24, 1943, OF 400 P.I. Indochina: Hull, p. 1596; Eden, p. 378; Stilwell, p. 246; see, generally, Bernard B. Fall, The Two Viet-Nams (Praeger, 1963); Buttinger. Reference to Roosevelt’s grandfather in Indochina: Fall, p. 453. Roosevelt on French colonialism in Indochina: Elliott Roosevelt, p. 115; Hull, p. 1597. Question of Free French representation on Pacific War Council: 740.0011 Pacific War/3648, SD, NA. Roosevelt on Atlantic Charter: PC 855, Oct. 27, 1942; PPA, 1942, p. 437. Phillips-Roosevelt and Phillips-Hull exchanges: FRUS, 1943, Vol. IV, pp. 178-222; specific quotations or references are from pp. 190, 207, 211, 222, 215, 220-222; see also William Phillips, Ventures in Diplomacy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1952), chap. 22; Hull, p. 1491; Vandenberg, pp. 52-53; Nicolson, p. 295; interview with Hull, Nov. 23, 1942, Clapper Papers, LC. Roosevelt and the Indian famine: M. S. Venkataramani, “The Roosevelt Administration and the Great Indian Famine,” International Studies (New Delhi), Jan. 1963, pp. 241-264. Appeal to Roosevelt: Sirdar J. J. Singh to Roosevelt, Sept. 29, 1943, 845.48/333, SD, NA. Nationalist developments in Indonesia: George McTurnan Kahin, Nationalism, and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1952), chap. 4.
Roosevelt as Propagandist. Battle of Sicily: Garland and Smyth; Samuel Eliot Morison, Sicily-Salerno-Anzio (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954), chaps. 4-10; Eisenhower, pp. 200-206; Hanson Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won (Harper, 1966), chap. 6; Fuller, pp. 260-264. Roosevelt’s receipt of the news of Mussolini’s fall: Sherwood, pp. 741-742; Rosenman, pp. 383-384. Roosevelt on OWI broadcast about Italian King, July 27, 1943: PPA, 1943, p. 323. Mussolini’s fall: F. W. Deakin, Bk. IV, which has extensive quotations from the council proceedings; see also MacGregor-Hastie, chap. 8. Roosevelt’s fireside chat after Mussolini’s fall, July 28, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 326-336. Roosevelt on dealing with Italians: PC 912, July 30, 1943; PPA, 1943, pp. 344-345. Background of development of information and propaganda agencies: Reston, pp. 199-215; PPA, 1942, pp. 274-283; PPA, 1943, pp. 118-121; The United States at War, chap. 8. Cantril critique of OWI, circa Dec. 1942: Cantril Notebook I, pp. 60-61; Philleo Nash interview by Mrs. Sharp, “Historical Appraisal on O.W.I., World War II,” Jan. 9, 1942, HSTL. Elmer Davis’s appointment and adventures as director: Frankfurter to Roosevelt, March 12, 1942, Freedman, p. 651; Elmer Davis Correspondence, Box 1, 1943, LC; Elliott Roosevelt, pp. 137-138; Smith Diary, Aug. 25, 1943, FDRL; Harold Smith to Roosevelt, Feb. 5, 1943, Smith Diary, FDRL; George Creel to Davis, Aug. 4, 1942, Davis Correspondence, LC. Unconditional surrender and psychological warfare: Ernest K. Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda, 1925-1945(East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1965), p. 309; William E. Daugherty and Morris Janowitz, A Psychological Warfare Casebook (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1958), pp. 260, 263, 273 ff., 278; Murray Dyer, The Weapon on the Wall (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1959), pp. 32, 47; Garland and Smyth, pp. 268-278. Generally, on the strategy of freedom: Reston, chaps. 1, 3.
Allied propaganda aims, as in Italy: Hammond to AC of S, OPD, Oct. 27, 1942, OPD Torch, AR. Nazi propaganda: FDRL has transcripts of translated Nazi radio broadcasts, which were sent on to the White House, some marked for special attention of the President. See, generally, Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964); Alexander L. George, Propaganda Analysis (Row, Peterson, 1959); Paul M. A. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal Press, 1948). Zeman quotation is from Zeman, p. 6. Excerpts from Hochschule text, 1939, are in FDRL. The Nazi cartoon leaflet is reprinted in Linebarger, pp. 138-139. The struggle over freedom as a symbol: J. M. Burns, “The Roosevelt-Hitler Battle of Symbols,” Antioch Review, Fall 1942, pp. 407-421. Roosevelt statement on freedom and social progress, Nov. 6, 1941: PPA, 1941, p. 476. Japanese propaganda is quoted in Daugherty and Janowitz, pp. 431-432. Roosevelt on himself as an expert on public psychology: Roosevelt to Basil O’Connor, May 16, 1939, PSF, Box 53. Relation of propaganda and deed: Daugherty and Janowitz, pp. 19, 44; Dyer, p. 104. Roosevelt as target: Daugherty and Janowitz, pp. 436-437. Roosevelt and Hitler compared as propagandists: Ralph K. White, “Hitler, Roosevelt, and the Nature of War Propaganda,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, April 1949, pp. 157-174. See, generally, H. G. Nicholas, “Roosevelt and Public Opinion,” The Fortnightly, May 1945, pp. 303-308.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Hyde Park matters: Roosevelt to W. Russell Bowie, Feb. 6, 1943, PL, p. 1399; Roosevelt to Moses W. Smith, June 10, 1943, PL, p. 1428; Roosevelt to William A. Plog, June 11, 1943, PL, p. 1429; Roosevelt to Curtis Roosevelt Dall, Feb. 19, 1943, PL, pp. 1402-1403; Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt Dall, April 8, 1943, PL, p. 1419. Library matters: Roosevelt to Archibald MacLeish, June 9, 1943, PSF, MacLeish Folder; Roosevelt to Ickes, Oct. 29, 1943, PL, p. 1461. Roosevelt on Joe Martin: Roosevelt to Fritz G. Lanham, March 9, 1943, PL, pp. 1407-1408. Roosevelt on Poughkeepsie Episcopalians: Hassett, p. 204. Roosevelt on his two illnesses: Roosevelt to Churchill, March 17, 1943, PL, p. 1413; Roosevelt to Churchill, Oct. 25, 1943, Churchill4, p. 314.
The Mills of the Gods. “No truck with fascism” pledge, July 28, 1943: PPA, 1943, p. 327. Hitler on his plans for Rome: quoted in Shirer, p. 1298. British prisoners of war in Italy: Churchill5, p. 59. Roosevelt on dealing with any Italian leaders except Fascists: PC 912, July 30, 1943; PPA, 1943, pp. 344-345 Sforza on fear of revolution: NYT, July 30, 1943, p. 3. Del Vayo on lack of democratic policy: The Nation, Aug. 21, 1943, p. 211. Churchill on radical tendencies in Italy: Churchill to Roosevelt, Aug. 5, 1943, Churchill5, pp. 99-100. PMRP, Naval Aide’s File, Italy and Sicily, Box 13, include extensive documentation on the Italian surrender; see, especially, Murphy to Roosevelt, Nov. 6, 1943. Churchill’s trip to Niagara Falls and Hyde Park: Churchill5, p. 82. Marshall’s and Stimson’s strictures to Roosevelt before Quebec Conference: Matloff, pp. 211-213; Stimson and Bundy, pp. 436-438; Stimson Diary, Aug. 10, 1943. Quebec Conference: Matloff, pp. 220-230; Bryant2, pp. 575-586; Churchill5, pp. 83-85; Sherwood, pp. 745-749. Leahy Diary, LC. Garland and Smyth provide a detailed account of the Italian surrender; the “say Uncle” quotation is from p. 444. Churchill3, chap. 6, offers a good short picture of the developments. Battle of Salerno: Salerno (Washington, D.C.: War Department, 1944); Eisenhower, chap. 10; Churchill5, pp. 142-149; Garland and Smyth, pp. 521, 523. Stalin’s message of congratulation: Stalin to Churchill and Roosevelt, Sept.10, 1943, Correspondence1, p. 162.
Roosevelt’s wartime concern for Jewish victims of Nazism, Oct. 25, 1941: PPA, 1941, p. 433; Aug. 21, 1942: PPA, 1942, p. 329; July 30, 1943: PPA, 1943, p. 338. Establishment of commission to investigate crimes, Oct. 7, 1942: PPA, 1942, p. 410. Of the extensive published material on Roosevelt and the European Jews, see, especially, Arthur D. Morse, While Six Million Died (Random House, 1967), and published and unpublished materials cited therein; and review of Morse by John M. Blum, The New Republic, Feb. 17, 1968, pp. 30-32. Wise to Roosevelt is quoted in Morse, pp. 26-27. Bermuda Conference: FRUS, 1943, Vol. I, pp. 134-250. Roosevelt on the conference: Roosevelt to Hull, May 14, 1943, FRUS, 1943, Vol. I, p. 179. Background of British and American policy on refugees: Hull to Roosevelt, n.d., but probably late Feb. 1943, with enclosures on British policy, FDRL; see also materials in SD, NA, 1943. Roosevelt and Zion: Range, pp. 152, 156-157; Blum2, pp. 207-208; Hull, pp. 1531-1534, 1536.
Cairo: The Generalissimo. Drew Pearson incident: PC 915, Aug.
31, 1943; Hull, p. 1253; Hull to Roosevelt, Aug. 30, 1943, Hull Papers, Box 52, LC. Stalin’s pique: Stalin to Roosevelt and to Churchill, Aug. 22, 1943, Correspondence2, p. 84; Correspondence1, pp. 138 ff. I have discussed with Soviet historians why Stalin did not meet with Roosevelt and Churchill to press his second-front demands, rather than complaining about exclusion, but the explanation remains elusive. Diminished Soviet interest in the second front: Long, pp. 320-322, 331; Sherwood, p. 734; Stimson Diary, Nov. 10, 1943; Matloff, pp. 285-286, 303, and references therein; Leahy Diary, Oct. 7, 1943, LC; Werth, p. 747. Realpolitik attitude in the War Department: Matloff, pp. 287-288. Reports of peace feelers: Nicolson, pp. 277, 309, 345; Leahy Diary, Aug. 11, 1943, LC; see also Ulam, p. 333; McNeill, p. 324 and citations. Bullitt’s strategic alternative: Bullitt to Roosevelt, May 12, 1943, PSF, Bullitt Folder. For a different (and somewhat later) view, see Kennan1, pp. 211, 218ff. Mackinac Island conference: Vandenberg, pp. 55-61. Proposed foreign ministers’ and Big Three meetings: Roosevelt to Stalin, Sept. 6, 1943; Stalin to Roosevelt, Sept. 8, 1943; Roosevelt to Stalin, Sept. 11, 1943; Stalin to Roosevelt and to Churchill, Sept. 12, 1943; Roosevelt to Stalin, Oct. 14, 1943; Correspondence1, pp. 89, 90-91, 92-93, 94, 100-101; Hull, pp. 1292-1296. Hull mission to Moscow, including Chinese adherence to the four-nation declaration: FRUS, 1943, Vol. I, pp. 513-781; Hull, chaps. 92-94; Eden, chap. 10. Stalin’s statement about Soviet intervention against Japan following defeat of Germany: FRUS, 1943, Vol. I, p. 686; Hull, pp. 1310-1311; FRUS, Cairo-Teheran, p. 147; PMRP, Box 210; text also in Hull Papers, Box 52, LC. Previous Soviet indications of willingness to join war against Japan: Harriman statement, Congressional Record, Vol. 97, Pt. 14, Aug. 27, 1951, pp. 5410-5416; Deane, p. 226; Leahy, p. 147.
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