a grant of $50,000: Lane, When the Mind Hears, 320.
Alexander Graham Bell: In addition to sources named above, my main sources on Bell were Gray, Reluctant Genius (e-book, so chapters given rather than page numbers), and Edwin S. Grosvenor and Morgan Wesson, Alexander Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone (New York, Abrams, 1997).
Visible Speech: Gray, Reluctant Genius, chaps. 1–3; Wright, Deafness, 212–216.
George Sanders: Bell quoted in Grosvenor and Wesson, Alexander Graham Bell, 40.
Helmholtz’s 1863 book: On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Study of Music, 4th ed., trans. A. J. Ellis (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1954).
Bell became convinced: Grosvenor and Wesson, Alexander Graham Bell, 47.
“Mr. Watson, come here”: Ibid., 66; Gray, Reluctant Genius, chap. 8.
“He came to his miracle”: Robert Bruce writing in the Foreword to Grosvenor and Wesson, Alexander Graham Bell.
at Hartford, Bell learned some sign language: Gray, Reluctant Genius, chap. 3, and Marc Marschark in introduction to “The Question of Sign-Language and the Utility of Signs in the Instruction of the Deaf: Two Papers by Alexander Graham Bell (1898),” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 10 no. 2 (2005): 111–121.
“Only the intensity”: Gray, Reluctant Genius, chap. 3.
His mother initially objected to his marriage: Ibid., chap. 7.
“When I was young”: Ibid., chap. 8.
his interest in heredity: Ibid., chap. 12; Lane, When the Mind Hears, 353–361; Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture, 174–175.
“He was not as clearly definite”: Marc Marschark in introduction to “The Question of Sign-Language.”
conference of deaf educators in Milan: Lane, When the Mind Hears, 387–395; Wright, Deafness, 208–209.
deaf students in America being educated in the oral method: Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture, 48.
“oralist tradition”: Lane, When the Mind Hears, 111.
“The weather of the two worlds”: Wright, Deafness, 95.
“If knowledge can be compared”: Ibid., 69.
“a commentary”: Ibid., 145.
CHAPTER 6: “MARVELOUS MECHANISM”
Jean Marc Gaspard Itard: Lane, When the Mind Hears, 132–134.
Hermann von Helmholtz: Rossing et al., Science of Sound, 85, 128–129; Harvey Fletcher and H. D. Arnold, Speech and Hearing (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1929), 118–119.
“With one broad sweep”: Fletcher and Arnold, Speech and Hearing, xi.
Bell Laboratories: Jon Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (New York: Penguin, 2012); S. Millman, ed., A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System: Communication Sciences (1925–1980) (Indianapolis: AT&T Bell Laboratories, 1984) 93–110.
Harvey Fletcher: Video of interview by Bruce Bogert circa 1963, at http://audi torymodels.org/jba/BOOKS_Historical/FletcherVideo/mpg/fletcher.mpg; Stephen H. Fletcher, Harvey Fletcher 1884–1981: A Biographical Memoir, (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1992) at http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/fletcher-harvey.pdf (“all there was to know,” ; Jont B. Allen, Articulation and Intelligibility (San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool, 2005), 24–25; Jont B. Allen, “Harvey Fletcher’s Role in the Creation of Communication Acoustics,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99 no. 4 (1996): 1825–1839.
“accurately describe”: Fletcher and Arnold, Speech and Hearing, v.
“The atmosphere of sounds”: Ibid., xi.
“The processes of speaking and hearing”: From Harvey Fletcher, Speech and Hearing in Communication (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1953), 1953 edition of the 1929 book.
“readily interpreted by the eye”: Fletcher, Speech and Hearing, 26.
the perfection of this instrument: Ibid., 26–27.
“farmers” (vowel sounds, etc.): Ibid., 29–63.
“makes it possible”: Ibid., 49.
After World War II: A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System, 104–106.
the audiometer: Fletcher, Speech and Hearing, 211–221.
created the decibel: Ibid., 68–69.
20 to 20,000 Hz: Ibid., 144.
whisper to a yell: Ibid., 69.
Thirty-Fourth Street and Sixth Avenue: Ibid., 106.
1939 World’s Fair: Ibid., p. 97.
Alfred I. duPont: Joseph Frazier Wall, Alfred I. DuPont: The Man and His Family (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 109.
According to Fletcher: Harvey Fletcher 1884–1981, 175–176, and Bogert interview.
“the first hearing aid”: Bogert interview.
Fletcher made hearing aids for Thomas Edison: Fletcher, Harvey Fletcher 1884–1981, 176–178.
Békésy’s traveling wave: Author interview with Andrew Oxenham; Jürgen Tonndorf, “Georg von Békésy and his Work,” Hearing Research 22 no.1–3 (1986): 3–10; Rossing et al., Science of Sound, 85-86; “Sound from Silence: The Development of Cochlear Implants,” Beyond Discovery, National Academy of Sciences.
After World War II: Tonndorf, “Georg von Békésy”: 4.
“This space-time pattern”: Peter Dallos and Barbara Canlon, “Introduction to ‘Good Vibrations’: A Special Issue to Celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the Nobel Prize to Georg von Békésy,” Hearing Research 293 no. 1–2 (2012): 1–2.
CHAPTER 7: WORD BY WORD
Speech production: Rossing et al., Science of Sound, 337–352; Author interview with David Poeppel.
causes of hearing loss: Waldman and Roush, Your Child’s Hearing Loss, 29; Mark Almond and David J. Brown, “The Pathology and Etiology of Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Implications for Cochlear Implantation,” in Niparko, ed., Cochlear Implants: Principles & Practices, 2nd ed., 43–81; Brad A. Stach and Virginia S. Ramachandran, “Hearing Disorders in Children,” and Heidi L. Rehm and Rebecca Madore, “Genetics of Hearing Loss,” in Jane R. Madell and Carol Flexer, eds., Pediatric Audiology: Diagnosis, Technology, and Management (New York: Thieme, 2008), 3–24; American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, at http://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589934680§ion=Causes.
CT scan: Medical News Today, June 10, 2009, at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/153201.php.
Mondini dysplasia or Mondini deformity: Niparko, ed., Cochlear Implants: Principles & Practices, 49; National Institutes of Health Office of Rare Diseases Research, at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/gard/8215/mondini-dysplasia/resources/1.
It was rare: The definition of a rare disease is one that affects fewer than 200,000 people nationally: http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/about-ordr/pages/31/frequently-asked-questions.
EVA: http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/eva.aspx.
CHAPTER 8: THE HUB
This chapter is based on author interviews with Bill House, John House, David House, Michael Merzenich, Don Eddington, Marc Eisen, John Niparko, Simon Parisier, Mario Svirsky, Michael Dorman, and Paulette Fiedor.
roundly criticized: William F. House and J. Urban, “Long Term Results of Electrode Implantation and Electronic Stimulation of the Cochlea in Man,” The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 82 no. 4 (1973): 504–517.
“Otology needs a new surgery”: William F. House, The Struggles of a Medical Innovator: Cochlear Implants and Other Ear Surgeries, (CreateSpace, 2011), 77–78; Richard T. Miyamoto, Marion Downs Lecture in Pediatric Audiology, AudiologyNOW, Dallas, April 2009.
“If I tell you”: William F. House, Cochlear Implants: My Perspective, (Newport Beach, CA: AllHear, 1995), 5.
Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta: Saurabh B. Shah, Jeannie H. Chung, and Robert K. Jackler, “Lodestones, Quackery, and Science: Electrical Stimulation of the Ear Before Cochlear Implants,” American Journal of Otology 18 no. 5 (1997): 665–670.
“I received a shock in the head”: Ibid., 666; “Luigi Galvani,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/t
opic/224653/Luigi-Galvani; “Conte Alessandro Volta,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/632433/Conte-Alessandro-Volta.
André Djourno and Charles Eyriès: Marc D. Eisen, “Djourno, Eyries, and the First Implanted Electrical Neural Stimulator to Restore Hearing,” Otology and Neurology 24 no. 3 (2003): 500–506; Phillip R. Seitz, “French Origins of the Cochlear Implant,” Cochlear Implants International 3 no. 2 (2002), 77–86; Stuart Blume, The Artificial Ear: Cochlear Implants and the Culture of Deafness (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010), 30–32; expressed the desire
When acoustic energy is naturally translated … No one was sure: “Sound from Silence”; Donald K. Eddington and Michael L. Pierschalla, “Cochlear Implants: Restoring Hearing to the Deaf,” On the Brain (Harvard Mahoney Neuroscience Institute Newsletter) 3 no. 4 (1994); Donald K. Eddington, “Speech Recognition in Deaf Subjects with Multichannel Intracochlear Electrodes,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 405 no. 1 (1983): 241–258; F. Blair Simmons, “Cochlear Implants,” Archives of Otolaryngology 89 no. 1 (1969): 61–69.
“The more a researcher knew”: Blake S. Wilson and Michael F. Dorman, Better Hearing with Cochlear Implants: Studies at the Research Triangle Institute (San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, 2012), 1.
Bill House: Author interview and House, Struggles of a Medical Innovator (I could feel the joy; from 40 percent to less than 1 percent; Alan Shepard; Jim Doyle.
“Electronic Firm Restores Hearing with Transistorized System in Ear”: Space Age News 3 no. 21 (1961).
Blair Simmons: Blume, Artificial Ear, 32–38 (“irresponsible claims” … “We were amazingly lucky,”). W. E. Fee Jr. and Richard L. Goode, “F. Blair Simmons MD (1930–1998),” Archives of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 124 no. 8 (1998): 843–844; and W. E. Fee Jr. and Richard L. Goode, “Memorial Resolution: F. Blair Simmons (1930–1988),” online at http://histsoc.stanford.edu/pdfmem/SimmonsFB.pdf.
An eighteen-year-old cancer patient: F. Blair Simmons et al., “Electrical Stimulation of Acoustical Nerve and Inferior Colliculus,” Archives of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 79 (1964): 559–567.
Anthony Vierra of San Jose: F. Blair Simmons et al., “Auditory Nerve: Electrical Stimulation in Man,” Science 148 no. 3666 (April 2, 1965): 104–106; F. Blair Simmons, “A History of Cochlear Implants in the United States: A Personal Perspective,” in R. A. Schindler and M. M. Merzenich, eds., Cochlear Implants, (San Diego, CA: Raven, 1985), 1–7.
TELL US WHEN: Michael Dorman showed me a photograph of this sign.
I am glad this meeting is a workshop … just might be possible: Simmons, “Cochlear Implants” (“unabashed admiration … auto horns,” [transcript] is in “Discussion” section).
Charles “Chuck” Graser: Mara Mills, “Do Signals Have Politics? Inscribing Abilities in Cochlear Implants,” in Trevor Pinch and Karin Bijsterveld, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 320–346 (writing to House; “You would probably describe,”). The Electronic Ear, film by Karen House (sent to me by Paulette Fiedor).
Parts of the movie: House, Struggles of a Medical Innovator, 79. The National Geographic special aired in 1975. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incredible_Machine_(film).
“Enthusiastic testimonials”: Pinch and Bijsterveld, eds., Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies, 331.
Wright brothers’ flight: House, Struggles of a Medical Innovator, 81.
Bilger report: R. C. Bilger et al., “Evaluation of Subjects Presently Fitted with Implanted Auditory Prostheses,” Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 86 Supplement 38 (1977): 3–10; Nashua Telegraph, December 7, 1976, at http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2209&dat=19761207&id=UKYrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3_wFAAAAIBAJ&pg=7066,1296511; House, Cochlear Implants: My Perspective, 8–9; Eddington, “Speech Recognition in Deaf Subjects.”
CHAPTER 9: PRIDE
This chapter makes use of author interviews with Ted Supalla and Carol Padden.
National Theatre of the Deaf: Jack R. Gannon, Deaf Heritage: A Narrative History of Deaf America (Silver Spring, MD: National Association of the Deaf, 1981). (“He bowed slightly”/“As a result, sign language”/“They decided to make NTD,” Boston Herald and The National Observer; My Third Eye transcript, 354–355); Stephen C. Baldwin, Pictures in the Air: The Story of the National Theatre of the Deaf (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1993) (a theatrical version of signed English, 34); National Theatre of the Deaf website at http://www.ntd.org/about.php?id=history (six people bought tickets); Padden and Humphries, Deaf in America, chap. 5.
William Stokoe: Padden and Humphries, Deaf in America, chap. 5, particularly pp. 79–81; Sacks, Seeing Voices, 61–63.
“He was the first linguist”: Gannon, Deaf Heritage, 364–367.
“a study in the anatomy of prejudice”: Lane, When the Mind Hears, xiii, xv.
“As I signed”: Lou Ann Walker, A Loss for Words: The Story of Deafness in a Family (New York, Harper Perennial, 1987), 202.
“became more self-conscious”: Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture, 130.
“A large population”: Deaf in America, 9.
“The traditional way … to portray”: Padden and Humphries, Deaf in America, 1.
not something to be “cured” or “fixed”: Dolnick, Atlantic Monthly.
Deaf President Now: Jack R. Gannon. The Week the World Heard Gallaudet (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1989) (WE STILL HAVE A DREAM! p. 109 and frontispiece); Sacks, Seeing Voices, 99–130; Gallaudet University website, at http://www.gallaudet.edu/dpn_home.html; “Person of the Week,” ABC News, March 11, 1988; “New President Protested at School for Deaf,” New York Times, March 7, 1988; “Gallaudet University Installs Deaf President,” New York Times, October 23, 1988.
CHAPTER 10: LANGUAGE IN THE BRAIN
This chapter makes use of author interviews with Simon Parisier, Michael Merzenich, David Poeppel, and Helen Neville.
The differences between a brain … where it is most desirable … brain’s basic division of labor: Changing Brains: Effects of Experience on Human Brain Development (DVD), University of Oregon Brain Development Lab, 2009, at www.changingbrains.org; Lise Eliot, What’s Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life (New York: Bantam, 1999); Sharon Begley, “Your Child’s Brain,” Newsweek, February 18, 1996; Arthur S. Bard and Mitchell G. Bard, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Understanding the Brain (New York: Alpha Books, 2002).
“merely an opening gambit”: Sharon Begley, Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain: How a New Science Reveals Our Extraordinary Potential to Transform Ourselves (New York: Ballantine Books, 2007), 10.
“experience is like a sculptor”: Changing Brains DVD.
National Institutes of Health and UCLA: Nitin Gogtay et al., “Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development during Childhood Through Early Adulthood,” PNAS 101 no. 21 (2004): 8174–8179. See video at http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/DEVEL/dynamic.html.
a second, smaller wave of neuron creation: Jay N. Giedd et al., “Brain Development During Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal MRI Study,” Nature Neuroscience 2 no. 10 (1999): 861–863.
possible to keep learning: Begley, Train Your Mind, 28.
The central auditory system: Author interviews with Michael Merzenich and David Poeppel. Also, Bradford J. May and John K. Niparko, “Auditory Physiology and Perception,” in Niparko, ed., Cochlear Implants: Principles & Practices, 1–17; biographical monograph, Michael Merzenich, courtesy of Michael Merzenich.
“If a system can be influenced”: Author interview with Helen Neville. See also “Nature and Nurture and the Developing Brain,” Oregon Health and Science University Brain Awareness presentation by Neville, transcript courtesy of Neville Lab.
A study published in 2009: USA Today, December 7, 2008; See also http://www.pleasanton.k12.ca.us/avhsweb/emersond/appsych/ch3_brain/ses_brain.pdf; Rajeev D. S. Raizada and Mark M. Kishiyama, “Effects
of Socioeconomic Status on Brain Development, and How Cognitive Neuroscience May Contribute to Levelling the Playing Field,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4 no. 3 (2010).
CHAPTER 11: WHAT IF THE BLIND COULD SEE?
This chapter is based on interviews with Helen Neville, Daphne Bavelier, Anu Sharma, Michael Dorman, and Michael Merzenich.
Molyneux and Locke and Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Begley, Train Your Mind, 30–37, 91–104 (“fixed, ended, immutable,” p. 36).
Hubel and Wiesel: David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel, Brain and Visual Perception: The Story of a 25-Year Collaboration (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005) (“That is something,” p. 371); Robert H. Wurtz, “Recounting the Impact of Hubel and Wiesel,” Journal of Physiology 587 no. 12 (2009): 2817–2823.
Helen Neville: Author Interview. Begley, Train Your Mind, 91–104 (“which is where any well-behaved brain,” p. 99); Daphne Bavelier and Helen J. Neville, “Cross-modal Plasticity: Where and How?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 no. 6 (2002): 443–452; Helen Neville and Daphne Bavelier, “Human Brain Plasticity: Evidence from Sensory Deprivation and Altered Language Experience,” Plasticity in the Adult Brain: From Genes to Neurotherapy 138 (2002): 177; Helen J. Neville and Daphne Bavelier, “Effects of Auditory and Visual Deprivation on Human Brain Development,” Clinical Neuroscience Research 1 no. 4 (2001): 248–257.
Anu Sharma: Author interview; Anu Sharma, Michael F. Dorman, and Anthony J. Spahr, “A Sensitive Period for the Development of the Central Auditory System in Children with Cochlear Implants: Implications for Age of Implantation,” Ear and Hearing 23 no. 6 (2002): 532–539; Phillip M. Gilley, Anu Sharma, and Michael F. Dorman, “Cortical Reorganization in Children with Cochlear Implants,” Brain Research 1239 (2008): 56–65; Anu Sharma, Amy A. Nash, and Michael Dorman, “Cortical Development, Plasticity and Reorganization in Children with Cochlear Implants,” Journal of Communication Disorders 42 no. 4 (2009): 272–279.
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