“word onset effect”: Helen Neville, “Nature and Nurture and the Developing Brain,” talk for OHSU Brain Awareness.
Usha Goswami: For examples of Usha Goswami’s work, see Usha Goswami et al., “Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis,” PNAS 99 no. 16 (2002): 10911–10916; Jennifer M. Thomson and Usha Goswami, “Rhythmic Processing in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: Auditory and Motor Rhythms Link to Reading and Spelling,” Journal of Physiology–Paris 102 no. 1 (2008): 120–129.
CHAPTER 20: A ROAD MAP OF PLASTICITY
This chapter is based on interviews with Helen Neville, Eric Pakulak, and Michael Merzenich.
Head Start: Neville et al., “Family-Based Training Program Improves Brain Function, Cognition, and Behavior in Lower Socioeconomic Status Preschoolers,” www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1304437110.
Mike Merzenich: For Merzenich’s neuroplasticity studies, see Begley, Train Your Mind, 37–45.
“neuroeducation”: For more on neuroeducation, see Gary Stix, “How to Build a Better Learner,” Scientific American, August 2011; Sheida Rabipour and Amir Raz, “Training the Brain: Fact and Fad in Cognitive and Behavioral Remediation,” Brain and Cognition 79 (2012): 159–179; Usha Goswami, “Neuroscience and Education: From Research to Practice?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, AOP, published online April 12, 2006, at http://www.uni.edu/gabriele/page4/files/goswami002820060029-neuroscience-and-education.pdf.
“profiles in plasticity”: Neville, “Nature and Nurture and the Developing Brain” (“road map of plasticity”); Courtney Stevens and Helen Neville, “Profiles of Development and Plasticity in Human Neurocognition,” in Michael Gazzaniga, ed., The Cognitive Neurosciences, 4th ed., (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 165–181; Helen J. Neville and Daphne Bavelier, “Neural Organization and Plasticity of Language,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 8 no. 2 (1998): 254–258.
the better babies are at responding: Patricia K. Kuhl et al., “Phonetic Learning as a Pathway to Language: New Data and Native Language Magnet Theory Expanded (NLM-e),” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London—Series B: Biological Sciences 363 no. 1493 (2008): 979–1000; Discussed in Eric Pakulak and Helen Neville, “Biological Bases of Language Development,” Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development, 2010. http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/pages/PDF/Pakulak-NevilleANGxp.pdf.
in thirteen-month-olds: Debra L. Mills, Sharon Coffey-Corina, and Helen Neville, “Language Comprehension and Cerebral Specialization from 13 to 20 Months,” Developmental Neuropsychology 13 no. 3 (1997): 397–445.
By twenty months: Debra L. Mills, Sharon Coffey-Corina, and Helen Neville, “Language Comprehension and Cerebral Specialization in 20-Month-Old Infants,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 5 no. 3 (1993): 317–334.
English-Korean speakers: Elissa L. Newport, “Maturational Constraints on Language Learning,” Cognitive Science 14 no. 1 (1990): 11–28; Jacqueline S. Johnson and Elissa L. Newport, “Critical Period Effects in Second Language Learning: The Influence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language,” Cognitive Psychology 21 (1989): 60–99.
Pakulak also studied Germans: Eric Pakulak and Helen J. Neville, “Maturational Constraints on the Recruitment of Early Processes for Syntactic Processing,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 no. 10 (2011): 2752–2765.
“level of proficiency”: Eric Pakulak and Helen J. Neville, “Proficiency Differences in Syntactic Processing of Monolingual Native Speakers Indexed by Event-related Potentials,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 no. 12 (2010): 2728–2744.
depend in part on selective attention: Courtney Stevens and Helen Neville, “Different Profiles of Neuroplasticity in Human Neurocognition,” in S. Lipina and M. Sigman, eds., Cognitive Neuroscience and Education, in press. http://bdl.uoregon.edu/Publications/Lipina%20chapter%20in%20press.pdf.
50 to 100 percent stronger: Ibid.
Using EEG, the children all underwent the same study: Courtney Stevens, Brittni Lauinger, and Helen Neville, “Differences in the Neural Mechanisms of Selective Attention in Children from Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds: An Event-Related Brain Potential Study,” Developmental Science 12 no. 4 (2009): 634–646; Lisa D. Sanders et al., “Selective Auditory Attention in 3-to 5-Year-Old Children: An Event-Related Potential Study,” Neuropsychologia 44 no. 11 (2006): 2126–2138. See also Head Start study, above.
CHAPTER 21: “I CAN’T TALK!”
For personal chapters, I relied on my journals, recollections of events, and files of reports about Alex from audiologists, doctors, speech therapists, and teachers. I also interviewed some of the professionals who have worked with Alex over the years.
CHAPTER 22: THE READING BRAIN
This chapter is based on interviews with Ken Pugh, Steve Frost, Usha Goswami, David Poeppel, Marc Marschark, and Beth Benedict.
“an optional accessory”: Steven Pinker, quoted in Wolf, Proust and the Squid, 19.
a church of phonological awareness … At Haskins, the Libermans: Donald Shankweiler, “Words to Meanings,” Scientific Studies of Reading 3 no. 2 (1999): 13–127 (Reversals of letters and words); Bennett A. Shaywitz et al., “The Functional Organization of Brain for Reading and Reading Disability (Dyslexia),” Neuroscientist 2 no. 4 (1996): 245–255.
“Made any discoveries today?”: Haskins Laboratories, The Science of the Spoken and Written Word, 2005. http://www.haskins.yale.edu/CaseStatement/Haskinscase.pdf.
“the entire speech stream”: Wolf, Proust and the Squid, 66–68.
preschool oral language skills are predictive: Bruce Pennington, University of Denver, “Definitions and Comorbidities of Developmental Disorders,” talk at 2011 Aspen Brain Forum.
how the brain reacts to speech: Bruce D. McCandliss, Vanderbilt University, “How Instructors Direct a Learner’s Attention Impacts Neural Changes During Reading Acquisition,” talk at 2011 Aspen Brain Forum.
location of a kindergartner’s brain response: U. Maurer et al., “Coarse Neural Tuning for Print Peaks when Children Learn to Read,” Neuroimage 33 no. 2 (2006): 749–758; Sanne van der Mark et al., “The Left Occipitotemporal System in Reading: Disruption of Focal fMRI Connectivity to Left Inferior Frontal and Inferior Parietal Language Areas in Children with Dyslexia,” Neuroimage 54 no. 3 (2011): 2426–2436.
National Reading Panel: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction (US. Government Printing Office, 2000).
state of California: Dehaene, Reading in the Brain, 200.
Charlotte’s Web: Wolf, Proust and the Squid, 131.
informed by neuroscience: For neuroscience of reading, see Bradley L. Schlaggar and Bruce D. McCandliss, “Development of Neural Systems for Reading,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 30 (2007): 457–503; Stanislas Dehaene, Reading in the Brain: The New Science of How We Read (New York: Viking, 2009), chap. 5; and Wolf, Proust and the Squid, Part 2.
at the University of Oregon: Yoshiko Yamada et al., “Emergence of the Neural Network for Reading in Five-Year-Old Beginning Readers of Different Levels of Pre-Literacy Abilities: An fMRI Study,” Neuroimage 57 no. 3 (2011): 704–713.
brain’s ability to connect: Ibid., 94.
visual word form area: Bruce D. McCandliss, Laurent Cohen, and Stanislas Dehaene, “The Visual Word Form Area: Expertise for Reading in the Fusiform Gyrus,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7 no. 7 (2003): 293–299.
The eyes impose constraints: Dehane, Reading in the Brain, 16–17.
Italian and Mandarin: Ibid., 31–37.
Portuguese villages: Paulo Ventura et al., “The Locus of the Orthographic Consistency Effect in Auditory Word Recognition,” Language and Cognitive Processes 19 no. 1 (2004): 57–95.
nonsense words: Interview with Ken Pugh. Mentioned in Paula Tallal’s interview on Phonological Processing, with David Boulton, Children of the Code. http://www.c
hildrenofthecode.org/interviews/tallal.htm.
A second study: Mark S. Seidenberg and Michael K. Tanenhaus, “Orthographic Effects on Rhyme Monitoring,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5 no. 6 (1979): 546–554.
Dennis and Victoria Molfese: For examples of work by the Molfeses, see Dennis L. Molfese, “Predicting Dyslexia at 8 Years of Age Using Neonatal Brain Responses,” Brain and Language 72 no. 3 (2000): 238–245; Kimberly Andrews Espy et al., “Development of Auditory Event-Related Potentials in Young Children and Relations to Word-Level Reading Abilities at Age 8 Years,” Annals of Dyslexia 54 no.1 (2004): 9–38.
“about ninety-nine percent” correct: Kirsten Weir, “Catching Reading Problems Early,” Monitor on Psychology 42 no. 4 (2011): 46.
Goswami’s theory: Usha Goswami et al., “Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis,” PNAS 99 no. 16 (2002): 10911–10916.
Anne-Lise Giraud: Katia Lehongre et al., “Altered Low-Gamma Sampling in Auditory Cortex Accounts for the Three Main Facets of Dyslexia,” Neuron 72 no. 6 (2011): 1080–1090.
poetry: Ibid., 97.
Lynette Bradley and Peter Bryant: Ibid., 100.
“As they listen”: Ibid., 223.
introduction of early hearing screenings: Karl R. White, “Newborn Hearing Screening,” in Madell and Flexer, eds., Pediatric Audiology, 31–42.
Ken Pugh: For examples of Ken Pugh’s work and more on the neuroscience of reading, see Ken Pugh et al., “Cerebral Organization of Component Processes in Reading,” Brain 119 (1996): 1221–1238; Ken Pugh et al., “Predicting Reading Performance from Neuroimaging Profiles: The Cerebral Basis of Phonological Effects in Printed Word Identification,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 23 no. 2 (1997): 299–318; Rebecca Sandak et al., “The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions,” Scientific Studies of Reading 8 no. 3 (2004): 273–292.
Research with students at Gallaudet: Vicki L. Hanson and Carol A. Fowler, “Phonological Coding in Word Reading: Evidence from Hearing and Deaf Readers,” Memory and Cognition 15 no. 3 (1987): 199–207.
emphasis on phonology is misplaced: Rachel I. Mayberry, Alex A. del Giudice, and Amy M. Lieberman, “Reading Achievement in Relation to Phonological Coding and Awareness in Deaf Readers: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 16 no. 2 (2011): 164–188; Rachel I. Mayberry, “When Timing Is Everything: Age of First-Language Acquisition Effects on Second-Language Learning,” Applied Psycholinguistics 28 no. 3 (2007): 537–549.
What limited data there is: See Outcomes studies in chap. 18. Also see Caitlin M. Dillon, Kenneth de Jong, and David B. Pisoni, “Phonological Awareness, Reading Skills, and Vocabulary Knowledge in Children Who Use Cochlear Implants,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 17 no. 2 (2012): 205–226; Marschark, Raising and Educating a Deaf Child, chap. 7.
CHAPTER 23: DEAF LIKE ME
“When my work faltered”: Josh Swiller, “I Think I Hear You,” Washingtonian, published online September 13 2010, at http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/people/i-think-i-hear-you/.
“This is often the way”: For a discussion of Ursula Bellugi’s work, see Sacks, Seeing Voices, 63–82.
“essentially nothing was known… . They invited deaf people”: “Remembering Dr. Edward S. Klima,” Inside Salk 3 (2009). http://www.salk.edu/inside salk/print.php?id=91.
neurobiological foundations of sign language: Sacks, Seeing Voices, 74–75; Daphne Bavelier, David P. Corina, and Helen J. Neville, “Brain and Language: A Perspective from Sign Language,” Neuron 21 no.2 (1998): 275–278; Mairéad MacSweeney et al., “The Signing Brain: The Neurobiology of Sign Language,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12 no. 11 (2008): 432–440; Aaron J. Newman et al., “A Critical Period for Right Hemisphere Recruitment in American Sign Language Processing,” Nature Neuroscience 5 no. 1 (2002): 76–80; Helen J. Neville et al., “Neural Systems Mediating American Sign Language: Effects of Sensory Experience and Age of Acquisition,” Brain and Language 57 no. 3 (1997): 285–308; Ruth Campbell, Mairéad MacSweeney, and Dafydd Waters, “Sign Language and the Brain: A Review,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 13 no. 1 (2008): 3–20.
“ASL is the only thing”: Barbara Kannapell, quoted in Sacks, Seeing Voices, 119.
Reliable statistics: “American Sign Language,” Ethnologue 17th Edition, at https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ase/; “Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2009,” 2012 Statistical Abstract, United States Census Bureau, at http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0053.pdf; Ross E. Mitchell et al., “How Many People Use ASL in the United States? Why Estimates Need Updating,” Sign Language Studies 6 no. 3 (2006): 306–335; Padden and Humphries, Inside Deaf Culture, 9.
“The inherent capability of children to acquire ASL”: National Association of the Deaf on American Sign Language. http://nad.org/issues/american-sign-language.
“What bilingualism does”: Ellen Bialystok speaking on The Brian Lehrer Show, WNYC, April 10, 2013.
Research on bilingualism: Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Gigi Luk, “Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 no. 4 (2012): 240–250 (“one of the chief factors”); Yudhijit Bhattacharjee, “Why Bilinguals are Smarter,” New York Times, March 17, 2012; Perri Klass, “Hearing Bilingual: How Babies Sort Out Language,” New York Times, Oct. 10, 2011.
“The fact that you’re constantly manipulating”: Bialystok, The Brian Lehrer Show, WNYC, April 10, 2013.
CHAPTER 24: THE COCKTAIL PARTY PROBLEM
This chapter is based on author interviews with Michael Dorman, Sarah Cook, John Ayers, Don Eddington, Hugh McDermott, and Karyn Galvin.
Lawrence Revit: Described to me by Michael Dorman. For more information, see R-SPACE sound system, at http://www.revitronix.com/.
Harvey Fletcher of Bell Labs described: Fletcher and Arnold, Speech and Hearing, 99.
understanding the cocktail party problem: For a review of research on the cocktail party problem, see Christophe Micheyl and Andrew Oxenham, “Pitch, Harmonicity, and Concurrent Sound Segregation: Psychoacoustical and Neurophysiological Findings,” Hearing Research 266 no. 1 (2010): 36–51.
spatial localization: Rossing et al., Science of Sound, 89–90; Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 292–299.
“temporal fine structure”: See Brian C. J. Moore, “The Role of Temporal Fine Structure Processing in Pitch Perception, Masking, and Speech Perception for Normal-Hearing and Hearing-Impaired People,” Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology 9 no. 4 (2008): 399–406.
René Gifford: “High Fidelity: Cochlear Implant Users Report Dramatically Better Hearing with New Vanderbilt Process,” Vanderbilt University Medical Center Reporter, March 5, 2013. http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2013/03/high-fidelity/.
Michael Dorman of Arizona State University: For examples of Dorman’s work, see M. F. Dorman et al., “Current Research with Cochlear Implants at Arizona State University,” Journal of the American Academy of Audiology 23 no. 6 (2012): 385–395; Michael F. Dorman et al., “Speech Perception and Sound Localization by Adults with Bilateral Cochlear Implants,” Seminars in Hearing 32 no. 1 (2011): 73–89.
“bimodals”: For bimodal bilingualism, see Karen Emmorey et al., “The Source of Enhanced Cognitive Control in Bilinguals: Evidence from Bimodal Bilinguals,” Psychological Science 19 no. 12 (2008): 1201–1206.
CHAPTER 25: BEETHOVEN’S NIGHTMARE
This chapter includes material from interviews with Charles Limb, Peter Blamey, Hugh McDermott, and Hamish Innes-Brown.
marbles rolling around in a dryer: Beverly Biderman, Wired for Sound: A Journey into Hearing (Toronto: Trifolium Books, 1998), 12.
“Happy Birthday to You”: Patrick J. Donnelly and Charles J. Limb, “Music Perception in Cochlear Implant Users,” in Niparko, ed., Cochlear Implants: Principles & Practices, 223–228.
commissioned composers to c
reate music: The music commissioned for cochlear implant users was performed at an event called Interior Design: Music for the Bionic Ear, The Bionic Ear Institute, 2011. Hamish Innes-Brown described Natasha Anderson’s music to me, and I read her description of it in the concert brochure.
Through Deaf Eyes: PBS, 2007.
Dame Evelyn Glennie: “Evelyn Glennie: How to Truly Listen,” TED Talk, February 2003. http://www.ted.com/talks/evelyn_glennie_shows_how_to_listen.html.
the first music that sounded good: Biderman, Wired for Sound, 23–24; Donnelly and Limb, “Music Perception in Cochlear Implant Users.”
timbre: For timbre perception in CI users, see Donnelly and Limb, “Music Perception,” 226; Kate Gfeller et al., “Timbral Recognition and Appraisal by Adult Cochlear Implant Users and Normal-Hearing Adults,” Journal of the American Academy of Audiology 9 no.1 (1998): 1–19.
CHAPTER 26: WALK BESIDE ME
In 2000, the National Association of the Deaf revised its position: See www.nad.org.
half of cochlear implant recipients are children: Julia Sarant, “Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review,” in Sadaf Naz, ed., Hearing Loss, 2012. Available from http://www.intechopen.com/books/hearingloss/cochlear-implants-in-children-a-review.
In 2009, it was estimated: Shari Roan, “Cochlear Implants Open Deaf Kids’ Ears to the World,” Los Angeles Times, August 3, 2009; John B. Christiansen and Irene W. Leigh, “Cochlear Implants and Deaf Community Perceptions,” in Paludneviciene and Leigh, eds., Cochlear Implants: Evolving Perspectives, 52.
Beginnings: “10-Year Change in Communication Choice, 5/28/13,” personal communication from Joni Alberg, executive director of Beginnings. The Beginnings DVD is available at https://www.ncbegin.org/#.
an “uncomfortable” place: Josh Swiller on his year at Gallaudet, in “I Think I Hear You.”
Gallaudet does look different: For current statistics about Gallaudet University, see Annual Report of Achievements, Fiscal Year 2012, Gallaudet University. http://www.gallaudet.edu/Documents/Academic/FY%202012%20Annual%20Report%20FINAL.pdf.
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