68. “Raw Materials,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952.
69. “You Have a Stake in Delaware, Valley, U.S.A.”
70. WFIL–TV, “For Advertisers …”
71. WFIL–TV, “WFIL–adelphia, the MAIN STREET of Delaware Valley, U.S.A.,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952.
72. Alison Isenberg, Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 3.
73. Ibid., 2.
74. Ibid., 42–77.
75. Ibid., 43.
76. On Disneyland, see Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 106–44; George Lipsitz, “Consumer Spending as State Project: Yesterday’s Solutions and Today’s Problems” in Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Society in the Twentieth Century, ed. Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern, and Matthias Judt (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 136–40.
77. Howell Baum, Brown in Baltimore: School Desegregation and the Limits of Liberalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore, 84–130; Brett Gadsden, “Victory without Triumph: The Ironies of School Desegregation in Delaware, 1948–1978,” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 2006); Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Viking, 2002), 107–17.
78. Maryland repealed its antimiscegenation law shortly before the Supreme Court’s Loving decision in 1967, while Delaware did not repeal its statue until 1986. On the history of miscegenation law, see Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
79. E. S. Bankes, “Financial Basis of Expansion,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952, 79–80.
80. Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors, 102, 172.
81. Lynn Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 35.
82. William Boddy, Fifties Television: The Industry and Its Critics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 51.
83. Federal Communication Commission, Annual Report, 1955. On the FCC’s policies and practices in the years surrounding the television freeze, see Hugh Slotten, Radio and Television Regulation: Broadcast Technology in the United States, 1920–1960 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 145–88; ibid., 28–64, 113–31; James Baughman, Same Time, Same Station: Creating American Television (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 56–81.
84. Michael Stamm, “Mixed Media: Newspaper Ownership of Radio in American Politics and Culture, 1920–1952,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 2006), 19.
85. Baughman, Same Time, Same Station, 74–79.
86. Christopher Ogden, Legacy: A Biography of Moses and Walter Annenberg (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1999), 322–23.
87. Ibid., 322.
88. Glenn Altschuler and David Grossvogel, Changing Channels: America in TV Guide (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 4–6.
89. Gaeton Fonzi, Annenberg: A Biography of Power (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1969), 24.
90. John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 14–15.
91. Ibid., 7–13.
92. On the radio stars who moved to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s, see Susan Murray, Hitch Your Antenna to the Stars: Early Television and Broadcast Stardom (New York: Routledge, 2005).
93. Dick Clark and Richard Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember (New York: Popular Library, 1976), 60.
94. A 1951 survey of 250 students at Philadelphia’s Northeast High School, for example, found that the 950 Club was their favorite radio program. Paul Duffield, “The ‘Teen-Ager’s’ Taste in Out-of-School Music,” Music Educators Journal, 37 (June-July 1951): 19–20. On the 950 Club, see Jackson, American Bandstand, 9–12.
95. Jackson, American Bandstand, 14–16.
96. Ibid., 16–19.
97. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook, 4–7; ibid., 19.
98. Jerry Blavat, interviewed by author, July 25, 2006.
99. Jackson, American Bandstand, 24.
100. Ibid., 20–24.
101. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook.
102. Ibid., 26.
103. Richard Peterson, “Why 1955? Explaining the Advent of Rock Music,” Popular Music 9 (January 1990): 97–116.
104. Richard Peterson and David Berger, “Cycles in Symbol Production: The Case of Popular Music,” American Sociological Review 40 (April 1975): 160, 165; Christopher Sterling, Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), 365–70.
105. Sterling, Stay Tuned, 365–70.
106. Alan Freed was a white deejay who helped to popularize black R&B and popularized the term rock and roll. See John A. Jackson, Big Beat Heat: Alan Freed and the Early Years of Rock and Roll (New York: Schirmer Books, 1991). On WDIA, see Louis Cantor, Wheelin’ on Beale: How WDIA-Memphis Became the Nation’s First All-Black Radio Station and Created the Sound That Changed America (New York: Pharos Books, 2002). On the large number of independent record companies that developed the national market for R&B and rock and roll, see Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay: The History and Politics of the Music Industry (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 27–49; Charlie Gillet, The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll (New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey, 1970), 79–134. For a useful study of one of the companies, see Donald Mabry, “The Rise and Fall of Ace Records: A Case Study in the Independent Record Business,” The Business History Review 64 (Autumn 1990): 411–50.
107. Among studies of the interracial exchanges in rock and roll, see Glenn Altschuler, All Shook Up: How Rock ’n’ Roll Changed America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3–66; Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 123–69; George Lipsitz, “Land of a Thousand Dances: Youth, Minorities, and the Rise of Rock and Roll,” in Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of the Cold War, ed. Lary May (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989), 267–84; Matt Garcia, “‘Memories of El Monte:’ Intercultural Dance Hall in Post-World War II Greater Los Angeles,” in Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Joe Austin and Michael Nevin Willard (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 157–72. On the working-class roots of rock and roll and the appeal of these values and traditions across class lines to listeners in urban, suburban, and rural areas, see George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 99–132; Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 91–134.
108. Jackson, American Bandstand, 20.
109. Quoted in Murray Forman, “‘One Night on TV Is Worth Weeks at the Paramount’: Musicians and Opportunity in Early Television, 1948–55,” Popular Music 3 (2002): 257.
110. Tom McCourt and Nabeel Zuberi, “Music on Television,” The Museum of Broadcast Communications, http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/M/htmlM/musicontele/musicontele.htm (accessed October 25, 2006).
111. McDougall interview.
112. Jackson, American Bandstand, 21–22.
113. Ibid., 24.
114. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 189.
115. Palmer interview. Palmer went on to be an important community activist in West Philadelphia. On Palmer’s work in addressing educational inequality and racism, see Countryman, Up South, 191–99, 225–68.
116. CHR, “Present Status of Current ‘C’ Cases,” May 4, 1954, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA.
117. Pricilla Penn, “Social Notes of Interest in the Quaker City Whirl,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1954.<
br />
118. CHR, “Intergroup Tensions in Recreation Facilities,” March 7, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 4, folder 104, TUUA. On William Penn High School and the work of black educator Ruth Wright Hayre in improving the educational offerings at the school, see chapter four.
119. Jackson, American Bandstand, 23.
120. Ibid., 57.
121. Blavat interview.
122. “Arrest TV Em Cee as Drunken Driver,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 23, 1956.
123. On rock and roll music and dance halls as spaces for intercultural exchange, see Lipsitz, “Land of a Thousand Dances”; Garcia, “‘Memories of El Monte’” ; Ward, Just My Soul Responding.
CHAPTER 2
1. The Fellowship Commission formed in October 1941 with representatives from the Jewish Community Relations Council, Fellowship House, Friends Committee on Race Relations, and Philadelphia Council on Churches. The Philadelphia branch of the NAACP joined in 1942, and by 1955 the Fellowship Commission included nine community agencies.
2. Maurice Fagan, “Fellowship Commission Annual Dinner Meeting, Report by Executive Director,” February 6, 1952, Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) collection, box 007, folder 012, Philadelphia Jewish Archives Center (PJAC).
3. Anna McCarthy, The Citizen Machine: Governing by Television in 1950s America (New York: The New Press, 2010), 4–9.
4. Ibid., 7.
5. Ien Ang, Desperately Seeking the Audience (New York: Routledge), 32.
6. On Americans All, Immigrants All, see Barbara Savage, Broadcasting Freedom: Radio, War, and the Politics of Race, 1938–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 21–62.
7. “Report to the Community,” October 1948, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 5, TUUA; “Within Our Gates: List of Profiles” [n.d.], [ca. 1950], FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 62, TUUA; Ruby Smith, “Lesson in Race Relations Brought Philadelphia Weekly via Radio,” The Philadelphia Afro-American, February 14, 1948.
8. Max Franzen, “Film Discussion,” in “Report to the Community,” December 1948, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 5, TUUA; Mary Constantine, “Film + Discussion = Action” [n.d.], [ca. 1949], FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 43, TUUA.
9. Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” October 1952, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 9, TUUA.
10. Helen Trager and Marian Yarrow, They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952).
11. On the Early Childhood Project, see Catherine Mackenzie, “Prejudice Can Be Unlearned,” New York Times, July 25, 1948; Barbara Barnes, “Prejudices Can Be Un-Learned, Experiments Conducted Here Show,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 11, 1951; “Report of the Committee on Evaluations,” July 8, 1949, Fellowship House (FH) collection, Acc 723, box 30, folder “Early Childhood,” TUUA; “Minutes: Committee on Program Priorities,” November 12, 1951, Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) collection, box 003, folder 015, PJAC; “Annual Meeting,” February 20, 1950, FC collection, Acc 626, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
12. On the broad intellectual history of intercultural education (also called intergroup education by some educators), see Cherry McGee Banks, “Intercultural and Intergroup Education, 1929–1959: Linking Schools and Communities,” in Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, 2nd ed., ed. James Banks (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004), 753–69; Nicholas Montalto, A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924–1941 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1982); Ronald Goodenow, “The Progressive Educator, Race, and Ethnicity in the Depression Years: An Overview,” History of Education Quarterly 15 (Winter 1975): 365–94; Patricia Graham, Progressive Education: From Arcady to Academe: A History of the Progressive Education Association, 1919–1955 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1967); O. L. Davis Jr., “Rachel Davis DuBois: Intercultural Education Pioneer,” in Bending the Future to Their Will: Civic Women, Social Education, and Democracy, ed. Margaret Smith Crocco and O. L. Davis Jr. (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 169–84; Daryl Michael Scott, “Postwar Pluralism, Brown v. Board of Education, and the Origins of Multicultural Education,” Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 69–82.
13. Jennie Callahan, Television in School, College, and Community (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), 46. On the cooperation between the Philadelphia’s commercial television stations and the schools, see Philadelphia Board of Education, “Report of Television-Radio Activities,” 1953, Division of Radio and TV, box 76, Philadelphia School District Archive (PSDA). For contemporary articles citing Philadelphia as a leader in the field of educational television, see Belmont Farley, “Education and Television,” Music Educators Journal 39 (November-December 1952): 18–20; Burton Paulu, “The Challenge of the 242 Channels: II,” The Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 7 (Winter 1952): 140–49. On the development of public television more broadly, see Laurie Ouellette, Viewers Like You: How Public TV Failed the People (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
14. Max Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” February 1953, FC collection, box 53, folder 10, TUUA.
15. For more on the Fellowship Clubs, see Fellowship House collection, Acc 723, boxes 13, 14, 32, 33, TUUA.
16. Max Franzen, letter to Maury Glaubman, January 19, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
17. Maurice Fagan, letter to Erma Cunningham, February 10, 1953, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
18. While car ownership rates by race are unavailable, a 1957 survey of eighteen thousand high school students in Philadelphia found that 27 percent of their families did not own cars. Since this survey included a large number of higher-income college-bound white students, the rate was likely closer to 50 percent for black families. In 1952, then, the question of hot-rodding was probably an academic one for most black teenagers and many white teenagers. On this survey, see Philadelphia Commission on Higher Educational Opportunities, “Educational and Vocational Plans Survey,” June 1957, Philadelphia Commission on Higher Educational Opportunity (PCHEO) collection, box A-300, folder 60–13, PCA.
19. Maurice Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
20. John W. Adams, letter to Maurice Fagan, May 11, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
21. Maurice Fagan, “Intercultural Education Is a Process,” Education 68 (November 1948): 182–87.
22. Fagan, letter to Erma Cunningham, February 10, 1953.
23. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
24. Brotherhood of Man (1946), an animated film promoting racial tolerance, was based on anthropologist Ruth Benedict’s book The Races of Mankind. Home of the Brave (1949) told the fictional story of a black Army private in World War II who suffered from a nervous breakdown and psychosomatic paralysis brought on by racism in society. On these and other postwar liberal films, see Thomas Cripps, Making Movies Black: The Hollywood Message Movie from World War II to the Civil Rights Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 151–73.
25. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
26. Ibid.
27. McCarthy, The Citizen Machine, 93.
28. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a number of radio performers and personalities began to experiment with televised talk shows. For a general overview of these and other national television talk shows in the 1950s, see Bernard Timberg, Television Talk: A History of the TV Talk Show (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 1–55.
29. Megan Pincus Kajitani, “A Product of Its Time: Youth Wants to Know, Postwar Teenagers, and 1950s Network Television,” paper delivered at annual meeting of National Communication Association, 2003.
30. Herbert Miller, letter to WCAU-TV, January 19, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
31. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
32. Herbert Miller, letter to Maurice Fagan, Febr
uary 4, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
33. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
34. Maurice Fagan, letter to Nancy Thorp, November 11, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
35. While this ideal family type was already evident in The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1952, it became more prevalent in the late 1950s with programs such as Leave it To Beaver (1957) and The Donna Reed Show (1958). On the spatial relationship among living rooms, televisual images of nuclear families, and television viewers, see Lynn Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 31–106; Mary Beth Haralovich, “Sit-Coms and Suburbs: Positioning the 1950s Homemaker,” in Private Screenings: Television and the Female Consumer, ed. Lynn Spigel and Denise Mann (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 111–41; Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Cecelia Tichi, Electronic Hearth: Creating an American Television Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Ella Taylor, Prime-Time Families: Television Culture in Postwar America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
36. Among the works on television and “liveness,” see Jane Feuer, “The Concept of Live Television: Ontology as Ideology,” in Regarding Television: Critical Approaches—An Anthology, ed. E. Ann Kaplan (Frederick, MD: University Publication of America, 1983), 12–22; Rhona Berenstein, “Acting Live: TV Performance, Intimacy, and Immediacy (1945–1955),” in Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real, ed. James Friedman (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 25–49.
37. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
38. Lois Labovitz, letter to Maurice Fagan, January 14, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
39. Thomas Breslin, letter to Maurice Fagan, [n.d.] [ca. February 1953], box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
40. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
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