11. On the southern campaign of massive resistance, see Numan Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950’s (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969); James Ely Jr., The Crisis of Conservative Virginia: The Byrd Organization and the Politics of Massive Resistance (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976); Matthew Lassiter and Andrew Lewis, eds., The Moderates Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998); Clive Webb, ed., Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). For a similar campaign of violence in the North related to housing, see Arnold Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953–1966,” Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522–50.
12. Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Viking, 2002), 179.
13. Saul Kohler, “Police Commissioner Gibbons Talks on Delinquency,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 4, 1957; “1000 Pupils Riot on S. Broad St.; 15 Are Arrested,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 25, 1957; “Schoolgirls Protected from S. Phila. Crowd,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 27, 1957; “Youth Fights Erupt Anew,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 25, 1957; “Residents Air Racial Tension,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 1, 1957.
14. Art Peters, “Negroes Break Barrier of TV Bandstand Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957. On this protest of American Bandstand, see chapter 7.
15. On the influence of Little Rock on white newspapers outside the South, see Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), 213–14.
16. Saul Kohler, “A Discussion on Integration Problem in Phila. Schools,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1957. For similar statements by school officials praising Philadelphia’s antidiscrimination efforts, see Allen Wetter, letter to Floyd Logan, June 3, 1958, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA; “Phila. Moving to Fore in School Integration,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 31, 1959; Commission on Human Relations, “A Statement of Concern for Public Education in Philadelphia,” May 17, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 40, folder 19, TUUA.
17. Floyd Logan, letter to Carl Morneweck, October 14, 1957, FL collection, Acc 469, box 11, folder 6, TUUA.
18. For examples of the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of struggles over southern school segregation after Little Rock, see “The ‘Desegregation Front,’” Philadelphia Tribune, August 30, 1958; “Ceaseless Fight for School Desegregation Highlight of 1958,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 3, 1959; “New Orleans Police Official: ‘The Worst Is Yet to Come,’” Philadelphia Tribune, November 18, 1960; “Further Delay Would Only Worsen Climate for Ending Segregation,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1960.
19. “Brief Supporting Petition to Board of Public Education of the School District of Philadelphia,” February 10, 1959, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA.
20. Albert Blaustein, “Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” in Civil Rights U.S.A.: Public Schools, Cities in the North and West, 1962, United States Commission on Civil Rights (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 125; also quoted in Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennylvania, 2000), 68–70.
21. “Minutes of October 5, 1959 Meeting,” October 5, 1959, FL collection, Acc 439, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
22. Theodore Graham, “Educational Equality League Sparked Fight to Halt School Discrimination,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 11, 1959.
23. On the resistance to the Fellowship Commission’s work on housing discrimination, see West Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Angora Civic Association,” November 18, 1954, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
24. Fellowship Commission, “The Philadelphia Childhood Relations Seminar: Three Years of Action-Research in Intergroup Education,” November 1956, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 5, folder 107, TUUA.
25. Fellowship Commission Committee on Community Tensions meeting minutes, January 13, 1960, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 008, PJAC.
26. “Commission Asks School Survey,” Jewish Exponent, February 19, 1960; David Horowitz, letter to Maurice Fagan, February 29, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Emma Bolzau, Assistant to Associate Superintendent, letter to David Horowitz, April 12, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Irving Shull, letter to friend, June 23, 1960, JCRC collection, box 003, folder 021, PJAC.
27. Curriculum Office, Philadelphia Public Schools, “A Guide to the Teaching of American History and Government,” 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 12, folder 16, TUUA.
28. Curriculum Office, Philadelphia Public Schools, “A Guide to the Teaching of American History and Government.”
29. Maurice Fagan, letter to David Horowitz, May 18, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Jules Cohen, letter to Maurice Fagan, May 13, 1960, PFC collection, box 002, folder 010, PJAC.
30. Fellowship Commission, “Meeting of Social Studies Department Heads and Fellowship Commission Representatives,” June 30, 1960, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Jules Cohen, July 18, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Charles Benham, July 15, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Peter Binzen, “Social Studies Textbooks in Public School Assailed,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 5, 1960; “Dateline: Delaware Valley U.S.A.,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 5, 1960; “Fellowship Group Demands More Spunk in School Texts,” Philadelphia Daily News, July 5, 1960; “Fellowship Unit’s Probe Attacks School Textbooks,” Jewish Times, July 8, 1960; “The Fellowship Survey of Textbooks,” Jewish Exponent, July 8, 1960.
31. Peter Binzen, “Phila. Schools to Add Course about Bigotry,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 6, 1960. While later articles in the Philadelphia Tribune and the Jewish Exponent quoted Fagan and Horowitz, respectively, regarding this course, Peter Binzen’s article in the Evening Bulletin did not cite a source for his story on the new school units. For these related stories, see “Public School Anti-bigotry Courses Set,” The Philadelphia Tribune, July 9, 1960; “Public Schools to Implement Textbook Work,” Jewish Exponent, July 15, 1960.
32. “Indoctrination Course,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 10, 1960.
33. Allen Wetter, “Public Schools vs. Bigotry,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
34. “Less Puritanical Approach,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
35. “By What Authority?” and “Free-Thinking Migrants,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
36. See chapter one for a discussion of defensive localism in relation to housing.
37. On the social warrant of consumer citizenship that underwrites this language of privatization, see George Lipsitz, “Getting around Brown: The Social Warrant of the New Racism,” in Remembering Brown at Fifty: The University of Illinois Commemorates Brown v. Board of Education, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and David O’Brien (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 54–59.
38. Maurice Fagan, “Controversy Leads to Exploration of Views,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 24, 1960.
39. On the Fellowship Commission’s community college public relations campaign, see “Junior College in Phila. Urged,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 4, 1960; “McBride Announces Start of Campaign to Establish Junior College in Philly,” Sons of Italy Times, November 7, 1960; “Fellowship Commission Spurs Move for Junior College in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Dispatch, November 13, 1960; “Drive Is Started to Set Up Community College Here,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 5, 1961; “Fellowship Conference to Discuss City College,” Jewish Exponent, March 31, 1961; “Fellowship Commission Sparks Drive for Junior Colleges,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 5, 1961; “Phila. AFL-CIO Endorses Plan for Junior College Here,” Philadelphia
Evening Bulletin, June 15, 1961; Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” November 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 17, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” February 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” April 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Charles Sunstein, February 1, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 5, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Georges Carousso, July 27, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Edmund Glazer, July 17, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUA.
40. E. Washington Rhodes, “The Man of the Year,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 2, 1960.
41. On the NAACP’s limited role in educational issues in the 1950s, see “The Philadelphia Branch in Retrospect for the Past Three and a Half Years,” 1957, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 151, TUUA; “Annual Report of the Phila. Branch of the NAACP for 1959,” 1960, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 30, folder 37, TUUA.
42. Floyd Logan, “Statement to the Governor’s Committee on Education,” May 24, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 18, TUUA.
43. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 75. On Logan’s efforts to ensure that these policies were implemented, see Floyd Logan, letter to Charles Boehm, January 9, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter Charles Boehm, April 27, 1962, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 26, TUUA; EEL, “Report on Meeting with Charles Boehm,” February 7, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 26, TUUA.
44. Charles Beckett, “Report of the Education Committee for the Months of January and February 1961,” March 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
45. Floyd Logan, letter to Allen Wetter, April 20, 1961, Acc 469, box, 4, folder 7, TUUA.
46. Ibid.
47. Cecil Moore, letter to Dr. Charles Boehm, May 29, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 4, folder 7, TUUA.
48. On the New Rochelle case, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 190–99; John Kaplan, “New Rochelle, New York,” in Civil Rights U.S.A.: Public Schools, Cities in the North and West, 1962, United States Commission on Civil Rights (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 33-103. On the lawsuits filed against school districts in the North and West after New Rochelle, see Gary Orfield, Must We Bus? Segregated Schools and National Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978), 363–87.
49. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 86. On the NAACP’s approach to Chisholm v. Board of Public Education, see Blaustein, “Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” 111–73; “School Board OKs $15 Million Bond Sale for Construction; Objects to Answering 75 Questions in NAACP Bias Suit,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 9, 1963.
50. Orfield, Must We Bus? 364.
51. Gittell and Hollander, Six Urban School Districts: A Comparative Study of Institutional Response—Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis (New York: Praeger, 1968), 26.
52. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 117.
53. William Lee Akers, letter to Cecil B. Moore, January 9, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
54. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 118.
55. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 149.
56. Ibid., 134.
57. “Summary of the Fifth Meeting of Discussion Group on Negro-Jewish Relationships,” June 10, 1963, JCRC collection, box 012, folder 005, PJAC; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission AGEX meeting minutes, January 25, 1954, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 001, PJAC. On the grassroots protests that challenged this educational and employment discrimination, see Thomas Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 145–73; Countryman, Up South, 130–48.
58. Bonaparte, “‘Average Joes’ Star in Demonstrations.”
59. “The Only Thing That We Did Wrong Was to Let Segregation Stay So Long,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 28, 1963.
60. Countryman, Up South, 138–39.
61. “Education Is Vital to Solution of Explosive Civil Rights Struggle,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 18, 1963.
62. “School Board Doubts Duty in Promoting Integration,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 8, 1963; Peter Binzen, “School Board Won’t File Plan on Integration,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1963; “School Decision to Contest Suit Vexes Judge,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 18, 1963; Peter Binzen, “Facing the Issue: Can the Schools Offset Housing Segregation?” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 21, 1963; Lawrence O’Rourke, “School Board to Get Formal Biracial Plan,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 8, 1963; Lawrence O’Rourke, “Secret Integration Plan for Schools Disclosed: NAACP Aide OKd It,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 12, 1963; Mark Bricklin, “School Board Members Wonder Who’s Running Things,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 14, 1963; Philadelphia Coordinating Council on School Integration, “School Integration Bulletin,” September 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 12, TUUA.
63. Lawrence O’Rourke, “400 Ministers Start ‘Direct Action’ on Schools,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 9, 1963; “Negro Pastors Begin Secret School Action,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 10, 1963; Floyd Logan, “Statement on Judge Raymond Pace Alexander’s Plea to the 400 Negro Ministers,” September 14, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA. On Logan’s opposition to Walter Biddle Saul’s refusal to file the desegregation plan, see Floyd Logan, letter to Member of the Board of Public Education, August 23, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
64. Mark Bricklin, “NAACP Wins as School Board Bows to Demands,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 28, 1963.
65. Mark Bricklin, “NAACP Pickets Continue Despite Bd. Surrender,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 22, 1963.
66. Mark Bricklin, “Meade School Boycott Spearheads NAACP Victory,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 22, 1963.
67. Bill Alexander, “Denial of NAACP Pact by Saul Shocks Judge, Moore into Disbelief,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1963. On the community meetings to discuss school integration, see Urban League of Philadelphia, “Report on School Integration Forum,” October 28, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 43, folder 13, TUUA.
68. “96 School Borders Face Revision to Foster Integration,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 1, 1964; “Crippins Calls Boundary Plan ‘Not Detailed,’” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 2, 1964; Peter Binzen, “Board Discloses New Boundaries for City Schools,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 7, 1964; “Boundary Plan Called ‘Farce,’ ‘A Fine Start,’” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 8, 1964; School District of Philadelphia, “Is There Room for Me?” [n.d.] [ca. April 1964], FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 22, TUUA; Philadelphia Public School, “Press Release,” April 7, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 27, folder 31, TUUA.
69. Bill Alexander, “2 Adversaries Blast Edict as Fraud, Disgrace,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1964.
70. “Set Feb 3 Deadline for Pennell Desegregation,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1964; Mark Bricklin, “Pennell School Parents to Picket Board of Education,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 8, 1964; Henry Benjamin, “School Board Has Emergency Meet,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 1, 1964; Mark Bricklin, “Board of Education Refuses to Take Students from Gaston Church Classes,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 14, 1964; Coordinating Council on School Integration, “Meeting Minutes,” December 9, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 12, TUUA; Florence Cohen, open letter, January 2, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 39, folder 5, TUUA; Ogontz Area Neighborhood Association, “Statement on Integration of the Pennell School,” November 12, 1963, FL collection, Acc
469, box 39, folder 5, TUUA.
71. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 184. On these busing protests, see “Wetter Hears 100 Protest Busing Pupils,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 24, 1964; “Crowd Heckles Dr. Wetter on Busing Program,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 8, 1964; “School Busing Problem,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 31, 1964; Floyd Logan, “Problems in Democracy of Philadelphia Public Schools,” August 2, 1965, FL collection, Acc 469, box 15, folder 4, TUUA.
72. Chris Perry, “Episcopal Pastor Blasts D’Ortona’s Two-Way Position,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 6, 1964.
73. Gaeton Fonzi, “Crisis in the Classroom,” Greater Philadelphia Magazine, January 1964, 30.
74. Ibid., 31, 64.
75. Ibid., 64, 73. On the intersection of gender and race in postwar attacks on welfare, see Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
76. Ibid., 64.
77. Ibid., 77.
78. Floyd Logan, “Answer to ‘Crisis in the Classroom,’” January 21, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 16, TUUA. For the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of the controversy surrounding the article, see Mark Bricklin, “Educational Equality League Says Article Libels All Tan Youth,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1964; Floyd Logan, “Answer to ‘Crisis in the Classroom,’” January 28, 1964. On Floyd Logan’s opposition to the cultural deprivation paradigm, see Floyd Logan, “Urban Reconstruction: Human Resources,” January 1963, RWH collection, box 11, folder 20, AAMP.
79. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 138.
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