Opium Wars
Opium caused two wars between China on one side and allies Britain and France, once in 1839 and again in 1860, as a result of China’s efforts to stop the smuggling of opium into China by Western traders. The use of opium in China had reached almost epidemic proportions. The first war ended with China’s opening of eleven ports for legal importing of opium, under the Treaty of Tianjin. China later tried to block this agreement, which led to the Second Opium War, itself concluding with the occupation and burning of the Imperial Summer Palace in Beijing by British and French forces. In Afghanistan in 2004, after beating the Taliban forces, NATO commanders, as part of their plan to “win the hearts and minds” of the local Afghans, hatched a plan to destroy opium fields previously financed by the Taliban. Analysis showed, however, that this would wipe out local economies, so orders were changed to destroy only large fields and leave the small crops untouched.
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During the U.S. Civil War, stores of morphine were frequently more plentiful to the troops than food rations, such that veterans on both sides, an estimated fifty thousand, became opium addicts. In 1900, morphine addiction was considered such a serious social epidemic that a group called the St. James Society offered free heroin in the mail to anyone wishing to kick morphine.
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OREGANO
Origanum vulgare
A Dash of Joy
Oregano, a perennial herb scientifically known as Origanum vulgare, is a common species of the genus Origanum of the mint family. Oregano is indigenous to warm, temperate regions, mainly in Europe and the Mediterranean. The plant grows from 1 to 2 feet tall with 3-inch-long leaves and longer purple-colored flowers. Some refer to the plant by its nickname, wild marjoram.
Origanum vulgare is a perennial, woody-based, aromatic shrub. The ovate, or egg-shaped, olive-green leaves appear opposite each other on the stem. The edges of the leaves are shallowly jagged, and the tips may be pointed or rounded. The purple flowers sit clustered on short, dense terminal or lateral spikes that have colors ranging from white to purple. Oregano favors summer months; a hot, dry climate is better for the plant, as it’s not able to survive in colder temperatures. Most experts advise planting oregano in early spring, in comparatively dry soil and in a region where it can enjoy full sun.
Culinary Herb
Oregano finds an extensive use in kitchens as a culinary herb. The leaves of this plant, both dried and fresh, have a warm, slightly bitter taste and an aromatic smell, and are used for flavoring many dishes. More recently, oregano has gained popularity as the staple herb of Italian-American cuisine; added to pizza sauce, it gives an extraordinary flavor. A wide variety of cuisines, from areas such as Turkey, Palestine, Egypt, and Greece to Latin America, make use of this herb. In Turkey its most common use is to flavor mutton and lamb. Homemade oregano butter is used in soups, salads, and pasta. Oregano also contains therapeutic essential oils.
Medicinal Uses
Since ancient times, oregano has served as a medicinal herb in treating conditions ranging from fever, jaundice, diarrhea, and indigestion to vomiting—all beginning with Hippocrates. The volatile oil extracted from this plant contains carvacrol and thymol, both well known for their antiseptic and antiviral abilities to help control the growth of bacteria, release phlegm, ease burning sensations in the digestive tract, and wipe out most worms or fungi. Its antioxidant properties make oregano helpful in the treatment of high blood pressure, heart disease, and even cancer. When used externally, oregano oils have been successful in relieving muscle and joint pains, swelling, and sores.
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Ancient peoples of Europe used oregano as a food preservative and as an antidote against certain poisons. The father of medicine, Hippocrates, used it to cure stomach problems and respiratory ailments. The word oregano derives from the Greek oros granos, meaning “the joy of the mountains.”
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PAPRIKA
Capsicum annuum
The First Spice?
Paprika is a popular spice of the Capsicum genus. It is red or deep orange, comes in powdered form, and plays a role in many cuisines around the world, including Chinese, Mexican, Indian, Hungarian, and American.
Paprika, the plant, is native to North America and South America. However, many believe its evolutionary forerunners originated in Hungary. Eventually, it spread far and wide, apparently carried on foot by nomadic races as they traversed the globe. Certain wild varieties or ancestors of paprika also evolved, perhaps separately, in southern Brazil and Bolivia. Archeological research suggests that paprika was first adapted to domestic use at least six thousand years ago. Aztecs in Mexico knew its numerous varieties before the arrival of the Spanish. Christopher Columbus brought Capsicum annuum seeds back to Europe. Cultivation was popularized in Africa, China, India, and other parts of Asia soon after its introduction to Europe, beginning in the 1500s. Now it is grown in almost all countries for domestic as well as commercial uses.
Capsicum annuum grows most productively in dry and warm seasons. Paprika plants occupy little space and are easy to grow, adapting to different soils with little need for fertilizers. It takes at least three months to produce its first fruit, or peppers, after reproduction; the fruit will change in color from green to yellow and to red, mostly commonly referred to as paprika pepper. Farmers then sun-dry the pepper for three or four days—once the pepper can be easily crumbled by hand, it is ready to be changed into paprika powder. After simple grinding or mashing, the peppers become the paprika spice with which we are most familiar. Picked fresh, the pepper remains safe to eat for at least one year. It’s no wonder the earliest nomads carried this plant with them; it might well be the first culinary spice used in humans’ primitive cuisine.
Uses of Paprika
People generally use paprika to color rice and add flavor to foods, including soups. The spice is also part of ayurvedic medicine (a traditional system of health science in India), meant to relieve pain. Practitioners combine the powder with sesame oil and other herbs to make an external application to alleviate muscular spasm and joint disorders, especially rheumatoid arthritis. In other countries, people use paprika as a home remedy for gout, dyspepsia, and paralysis. Still others use the spice to lower blood pressure and to aid in the killing of cancer cells.
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Concerns
Capsicum annuum should not be used in excess in the form of lotions or creams. These can cause burning sensations in the chest or throat, and gastritis. Likewise, one should avoid use before and after surgery, as it can increase bleeding due to its anticoagulant properties. Make sure to cease Capsicum annuum use at least two weeks prior to surgery.
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PEYOTE
Lophophora williamsii
Sacred Medicine
Scientifically termed Lophophora williamsii, peyote is a small, spineless cactus plant, indigenous to southwestern Texas and Mexico. The name peyote comes from a Spanish word meaning “to glisten,” which aptly describes the beauty of this fascinating creature of nature. The word is actually derived from the Nahuatl people, who called the plant peyotl. Native North Americans, such as the Huicho of northern Mexico and various local American tribes, have used peyote for at least 5,500 years, according to historians.
Since the early nineteenth century, Native American religious practitioners have used this distinct species of cactus for religious, ceremonial, and healing purposes, considering peyote a sacred medicinal herb, able to combat physical, spiritual, and social ills. The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs permitted its use after Native Americans compared its religious significance to that of the Eucharist for Christians. Dr. John Raleigh Briggs, a Texas physician, was first to draw attention to peyote’s chemical composition, believing it could have beneficial uses in Western medicine.
Peyote, part of the genus Lophophora, grows near the ground and forms groups of numerous, bluish green, reddish green, or yellowish green shoots. These new shoots have sunken tips that form as
flattened spheres and can reach only short heights of ½ to 2 inches but are twice as broad. A yellowish or whitish hair, appearing like clustered strands of wool, arises from the cusp areoles. Peyote, a spineless cactus, develops blooms, mostly pinkish in color, which open during the day, reaching a width of maybe ¼ inch.
The plant sporadically bears flowers, which then give rise to edible fruit—small, club shaped, with fleshy outgrowths containing tiny black and pear-shaped seeds. Slow growing, and with strikingly beautiful flowers, peyote can withstand extreme temperatures, and hot and humid climates are actually favorable for its germination. Although the plant can grow at altitudes as high as 4,000 feet, its primary habitat is semiarid regions and deserts, preferably in soil rich in limestone.
Wide Uses of Peyote
Many interpret the effects of ingesting peyote to be spiritual in nature, making it a renowned herb among many, particularly Native Americans. The substantial percentage of phenethylamine alkaloids, mainly mescaline, gives the plant its psychoactive properties. The top of the cactus, referred to as the crown, is composed of buttons, shaped like discs, which harvesters cut from the ground and dry out. These buttons, when chewed or boiled with water to make tea, are a popular delivery method for the plant’s psychoactive effects. Since the mixture is exceptionally bitter, many experience nausea before any desired visions occur. Cultivated peyote contains only dashes of the alkaloid, as compared to those harvested in the wild, and are thus less useful for trippers. Apart from this, Native American tribes have used the plant for curative purposes, employing peyote for treating varied ailments like toothache, labor pain, breast pain, skin diseases, colds, and fever.
PHILODENDRON
Philodendron scandens oxycardium
Toxic Decoration
Philodendron is a huge genus of more than 450 species of flowering plants; the number tends to vary, as many of the species are still unknown and unidentified. The second-largest member of the Araceae family is an assortment of fleshy-stemmed, climbing herbs, which commence their lives as vines and gradually transform into epiphytes. Many known species of this genus, such as the heartleaf, often serve as indoor houseplants. The Greek words philo, meaning “love,” and dendron, meaning “tree,” come together to give the genus its scientific name. It was Charles Plumier, a seventeenth-century Franciscan monk and a renowned vegetarian and botanist, who first discovered and classified this group of tropical American plants.
Philodendrons are popular worldwide for their decorative foliage. Natural-born climbers, these plants grow everywhere, and are adept at making homes and greenhouses look attractive. The genus contains a highly diverse set of species, coming in many shapes and sizes. They all tend to have long aerial roots with rich green leaves, which may be coppery red underneath or may bear red veins. Some possess heart-shaped leaves, while in some you may find long and narrow or arrow-shaped leaves; still others have ovate or deeply lobed ones. Sizes vary from 3 inches to 3 feet in length. Blossoms come in diverse colors, including shades of pink, red, purple, or greenish white, depending on the different species.
Philodendron is found in many diverse habitats of tropical America and the West Indies. Though most species under this genus prefer humid tropical forests, some may even grow on riverbanks, at roadsides, and in swamps. In many parts of the world, it is common to find a philodendron plant clambering over other plants or trunks of trees, using its aerial roots to gain access to sunlight. Shady spots outside your dwelling with mild climates and moist soil rich in organic matter are sufficient conditions for the growth of philodendrons.
Various species of the genus Philodendron have played a role in folk medicine, for a variety of purposes. People in the Amazonian region of Brazil have made medicinal use of different philodendron roots; Philodendron fragrantissimum is one such species and is used for both bathing and fumigation.
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Philodendron Poisoning
Philodendron kept as flowering houseplants contain some aroid toxins and calcium oxalate. Toxicosis might occur due to some of the proteins and amino acids not being suitable for human consumption. A philodendron also contains calcium oxalate, which acts as poison in humans and animals. Almost all parts of a philodendron flowering houseplant are toxic, but the leaves and stems are the most dangerous. If someone eats part of a philodendron flowering houseplant, poisoning can occur. Common symptoms of philodendron poisoning are pain or a burning sensation in the eyes, heartburn, loss of motor skills, skin irritation, and nausea. In severe conditions, slurred speech and swelling of the tongue and mouth can occur. The plants are poisonous to cats and dogs as well. There is no antidote, and pets that eat the plant can die from irreversible liver and kidney damage.
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POISON IVY
Toxicodendron radicans
The Two-Sided Plant
Actually, Toxicodendron radicans isn’t even a true ivy species (Hedera), but rather is a plant that produces a poisonous sap, urushiol, that can cause irritation, itching, or a painful rash if touched. This “ivy” comes in three forms: as a trailing vine 4 to 9 inches tall, as a climbing vine that grows on trees, and as a shrub that reaches 3 to 11 feet in height. It is native to North America, found primarily east of the Mississippi River. Native Americans used it both as a medicine and as a “chemical” weapon. The first Western colonists quickly discovered its dangerous effects and taught their young from an early age how to identify and avoid it. Eventually, they learned from the American natives that it also held valuable medicinal properties, and used it in herbal medicine to treat arthritis, paralysis, skin disorders, and as a sedative.
Poison ivy has trifoliate, alternate leaves 7 to 10 inches long; the leaflets are shiny green on the surface and paler below, ovate, and irregularly toothed. It is a monoecious species, with small, yellowish green flowers that are prevalent in spring and early summer. The fruits are white-greenish, oval, and grow to ¼ inch in diameter. Its slender twigs are gray or red-brownish, and its thick trunk or stalk is densely covered with aerial roots dark gray in color. All parts of the plant are toxic, not just the leaves, which many people don’t know.
Still, poison ivy fruits are an important food for many birds, as well as other animals, particularly deer. These animals spread the seeds via defecation and help the plant’s regeneration over large areas. Goats also like the plant very much and farmers often set them loose in fields to help control its spread. According to folklore, drinking milk from poison ivy–eating goats could transfer the plants’ toxin to people, but there is no evidence to support this.
If you’ve been exposed to poison ivy’s oil, you should wash the affected area within one hour after touching it, using lots of cold running water. Only soap without oils is safe—others can spread the rash. Washing the area with alcohol can be effective, if one rinses with water immediately after (so as not to strip the skin of its natural protective oils, thus making it more vulnerable to the spread of the rash). There is no simple antidote, although some have tried to find ways to build up a natural immunity. Others use the liquid from the jewelweed plant, which often grows near poison ivy, to treat poison ivy rashes.
The Immunization Technique
As with a number of poisonous plants, many have willingly consumed poison ivy leaves in order to try to build up immunity. Some have been successful, starting with small doses and then increasing gradually until immunity was achieved. However, the side effects of this radical practice include getting internal rashes in the throat and stomach, which surely had to be a wriggling, itching nightmare. Some pharmaceuticals exist for the purpose of helping reduce poison ivy’s more serious side effects, but no other immunization is yet available. As the saying goes, don’t try this at home!
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Toxicodendron radicans spread to England and Australia, where people today plant it in gardens for its color or as a border plant to dissuade thieves. People in England and Australia also learned that when dried in the sun, the sap turns black and thick like
a lacquer. This by-product is used as a dye, a permanent ink, and an ingredient in varnishes.
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POTATO
Solanum tuberosum
World’s Savior
Officially the world’s favorite root vegetable and the fourth-largest food crop (following wheat, rice, and maize), the potato is a lifesaving plant that has provided food to millions of hungry people. In a vote to decide the most important events in human history, the discovery of the potato should rank high. There are more than 4,000 varieties of this plant, classified into smaller groups such as whites, reds, yellows, russets, and so on. In the Andes (Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia, areas where the potato originated), there are 3,000 varieties, belonging to 9 species; there are also about 200 wild species and subspecies, some of which are crossbred with cultivated ones.
Spanish colonists discovered the plant and introduced it to Europe in the sixteenth century, after which it rapidly spread across the globe. Today annual consumption of potatoes is estimated to be at about sixty pounds per person. Agricultural historians point to the potato as a primary reason for the rapid growth of the world population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900—this life-sustaining plant has truly altered history.
The Big, Bad Book of Botany Page 19