329–330 Marshall praised Chiang’s Taylor, Generalissimo, 365; “really big man” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 690; thought he may have made his case, “He was grateful” CKS diary, 7 January 1947, Hoover.
330 “symbolic of the triumph” JHC to Madame CKS, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/5, GCMRL; note signed by Chiang FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 687.
330 almost a month Papers Vol. 5, 776; exact specifications GCM to Carter, 5 January 1947, Marshall Mission Records 10, NARA; vitriol would be clarifying FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 682; sideline hard-liners Final report 428.
330 Final statement text Papers Vol. 5, 772–776.
331 “friendly and constructive” Military intelligence review, 16 January 1947, Naval Aide Files 19/4, HST Papers, HSTL; “accept good-naturedly” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 703.
331 Chen Li-fu New York Times 14 January 1947.
331 “unusually frank” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 693; “55 percent” Beal, Marshall, 349.
331–332 Zhou would condemn Zhang in Bland, George C. Marshall’s, 231; “this rotten government” Lutze, China’s, 63; Mao would proclaim Lutze, China’s, 70.
332 censor key portions Final report 434; military-backed Nationalist outlet, “reactionary” Embassy Nanjing to State Department, Marshall Mission Records 24, NARA.
332 “That General Marshall has not accomplished” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 695.
332 judging the statement fair Wellington Koo Oral History, Columbia; “blow the whistle” Herzstein in Bland, George C. Marshall’s, 143.
332 “ugly role of Chiang Kai-shek’s herald” Papers Vol. 5, 498; “reactionary Republicans” Westad, “Losses,” 109.
332 “plague on both” Melby, Mandate, 218; “American interest in China” Melby, Mandate, 229.
332–333 slick with snowmelt, limousine Time 20 January 1947; the Chiangs accompanied, “Come back” Time 20 January 1947; Chiang looked into Marshall’s eyes CKS diary, 8 January 1947, Hoover.
333 Most of the gifts Caughey to Chamberlin, 22 November 1946, GCM Papers 122/12, GCMRL; Caughey, who was glad JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; “Adequate words” JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL.
333 “It was a gallant cause” JM to Hellman, 24 March 1947, JM Papers 36, HSTL; “really ugly part” JM to Hellman, 6 December 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.
333 tears, “man of sentiments” CKS diary, 8 January 1947, Hoover; Marshall would be on his side CKS diary, 10 January 1947, Hoover; final phase of operations CKS diary, 9 January 1947, Hoover; “He and I ending” CKS diary, 8 January 1947, Hoover; “It occurred to me” CKS diary, 11 January 1947, Hoover.
334 over Okinawa GCM Memorandum on China for HST, 18 May 1954, GCM Papers 241/5, GCMRL, and JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; “Congratulations, Mr. Secretary” JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL.
334 cockpit radio JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL; A leak had forced James F. Byrnes, All in One Lifetime, 388; “into the fire” GCM to AW, 21 January 1947, GCM Papers 124/10, GCMRL.
334 bottle of scotch Connors to JHC, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/15, GCMRL; “Poor Mrs. Marshall” JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL.
Epilogue: Losing China
335 Two years before, war Papers Vol. 5, 38; one year before, the China GCM to Conant, 20 April 1946, GCM Papers 122/25, GCMRL.
336 Patrick Hurley Carter to GCM, 13 January 1947, GCM Papers 71/31, GCMRL; persistent rumor Chicago Tribune 9 January 1947; He reiterated to reporters Papers Vol. 6, 8.
336 “Peace has yet to be secured” Papers Vol. 6, 48; “We can act for our own good” Papers Vol. 6, 255.
336 “Certain things have to happen” Papers Vol. 6, 34.
336–337 Communist personnel to Yenan Underwood to JHC, 9 March 1947, Marshall Mission Records 34, NARA; remaining members of the Dixie Mission FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 719; equipment for Marshall’s Minutes of Executive Headquarters meeting, 11 February 1947, Alvan Gillem Papers 8, MHI; Chiang had taken Marshall’s exit Westad, Decisive, 65; accepted Marshall’s apology CKS diary, 10 January 1947, Hoover; “All over and in all” JM to Hellman, 1 June 1947, JM Papers 36, HSTL.
337 “ ‘I told you so’ ” Papers Vol. 6, 35.
337 Chiang’s chief of staff said the Communists Tsou, America’s, 450.
337 found its language too sweeping John Lewis Gaddis, “Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?,” 390; “No amount of assistance,” “strikingly similar” Washington Post 15 February 1947.
338 “basic responsibility for European recovery” Papers Vol. 6, 250.
338 “avoid trivia” Kennan, Memoirs, 326.
338 Marshall Plan for China New York Times 18 June 1947; for Latin America Cray, General, 651; for the entire Far East Intelligence staff study on the possibility of a Marshall Plan in the Far East, 4 August 1947, AW Papers 95/2, Hoover.
338 “not big things” Transcript of GCM comments, Conference on Problems of United States Policy in China, Secretary’s Files 152/4, HST Papers, HSTL.
338–339 “hungry table” Pogue, Ordeal, 48; Communists’ aptitude for chaos John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, 58; “There is a tendency to feel” Papers Vol. 6, 368.
339 “fight no battle” Spence, Mao, 107.
339 “strategic nightmare” Mark A. Stoler, “George C. Marshall and the ‘Europe-First’ Strategy,” 12; “impose incalculable burdens” Papers Vol. 6, 255; quickly heartened Marshall statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee, 12 January 1948, GCM Papers 157/80, GCMRL; “greatest decision in our history” Stoler, George C. Marshall, 166.
339 “Only the Europeans,” “the main part” Marshall statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee, 12 January 1948, GCM Papers 157/80, GCMRL.
339–340 “China does not itself” Papers Vol. 6, 378; industrial capacity Leffler, Preponderance, 191; crucial base in a war Leffler, Preponderance, 125; China was thirteenth Dorothy Borg, Uncertain Years, 72; Korea and Japan Leffler, Preponderance, 148; chagrin of Nationalist officials Papers Vol. 5, 744.
340 “twice the size of Europe” Davies, China Hand, 302; size of Greece White Paper 351.
340 economies working again GCM to Patterson, 4 March 1947, Secretary’s Files 151/10, HST Papers, HSTL; neglecting training Papers Vol. 6, 372; overextending lines Marshall statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee, 12 January 1948, GCM Papers 157/80, GCMRL; alienating local populations Papers Vol. 6, 375; “They greeted me” Papers Vol. 6, 370.
340–341 Washington’s supposed double standard Westad, Decisive, 159–160; “identical” Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace, 294; “racist and naïve” Papers Vol. 6, 257; “yellow-skinned” CKS diary, 19 March 1948, Hoover; If the United States was set Papers Vol. 7, 100; “If I thought for a moment” Gaddis, Strategies, 40.
341 He rejected calls Papers Vol. 6, 371; “sand in a rathole” Thomas G. Paterson, “If Europe, Why Not China?,” 32; “coup de grace” Papers Vol. 6, 631; asked colleagues for ideas Millis, Forrestal Diaries, 286; solicited proposals GCM Resume of the world situation, 7 November 1947, Naval Aide Files 16/10, HST Papers, HSTL; “provide a breathing space” Marshall statement before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, 12 January 1948, GCM Papers 157/80, GCMRL; Nationalist armies had been well supplied GCM to Patterson, 4 March 1947, Secretary’s Files 151/10, HST Papers, HSTL; Chiang’s disregard Tsou, America’s, 428; munitions dumps Chinese Embassy analysis, 2 March 1948, AW Papers 99/11, Hoover; scrapping the embargo Gallicchio, Scramble, 180.
341 “I have tortured my brain” May, Truman, 20.
341–342 “Marshall Plan for China” Washington Post 29 July 1947; years “apathy,” “pathetic” AW to GCM, 29 July 1947, AW Papers 95/8, Hoover; police suppression AW to GCM, 17 August 1947, AW Papers 95/8, Hoover; “make rich men richer” AW to MacArthur, 20 October 1947, AW Papers 93/44, Hoover; Washington should try to save Eiler in Bland, George C. Marshall’s, 110; he excoriated Nationalist officials Stuart, Fifty Y
ears, 186, and Melby, Mandate, 294; “The insult imposed” CKS diary, 30 August 1947, Hoover; “excellent spirit,” “spiritually insolvent” AW to GCM, 29 July 1947, AW Papers 95/8, Hoover; He recommended Marshall refused to publicly release Wedemeyer’s official report, because of an inflammatory recommendation for a United Nations trusteeship in Manchuria—inflammatory to Chiang above all. Later, this refusal became fodder for conspiracy theories, critics charging that Marshall had suppressed the report because he did not want to help Chiang.
342 to head off opposition Christensen, Useful, 65; At 10 percent Leffler, Preponderance, 249; “buying time” Army Secretary’s report to the National Security Council, 26 July 1948, Secretary’s Files 178/17, HST Papers, HSTL.
342 “overlook no” White Paper 280.
342–343 “foretold” Papers Vol. 6, 30; American advisers urged Paine, Wars, 256; huge quantities of American arms Westad, Decisive, 112; “He is losing” Westad, Decisive, 160; Chang Chi-chung Lionel Max Chassin, The Communist Conquest of China, 218; Chiang retracted promises Westad, Decisive, 164.
343 world-war scale Westad, Decisive, 199; Stalin took another look Pantsov, Mao, 353; increased the flow Westad, Brothers, 62; CCP griping Westad, Decisive, 165; face-to-face meeting Westad, Decisive, 217; Central Intelligence Agency CIA report on Soviet objectives in China, 15 September 1947, Secretary’s Files 213/8, HST Papers, HSTL.
343 “snowball rolling” AW to Luce, 14 July 1947, AW Papers 93/42, Hoover; baseball analogy Paterson, “If Europe,” 21.
343–344 “head examined” Taylor, Generalissimo, 396; 10,000 advisers Gallicchio, Scramble, 182; leeway to get more closely involved AW to CKS/Madame CKS, 15 December 1947, AW Papers 98/17, Hoover; a plan to revive the Flying Tigers Papers Vol. 6, 631; Senior army officers May, Truman, 14; “stand and hold” Edward J. Marolda in Bland, George C. Marshall’s, 417; American advisers Soong to Butterworth, 5 July 1947, W. Walton Butterworth Papers 1/7, GCMRL; American bases Belden, China Shakes, 445; Bullitt Life essay Schurmann, Republican China, 356–357; unseat Chiang White Paper 285.
344 intervening with Truman Ernest R. May, “When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China,” 1009; “direct responsibility” Papers Vol. 6, 376; “sucked in” Papers Vol. 6, 483; “have to be prepared,” “a continuing commitment” Papers Vol. 6, 377.
344–345 “more vital regions” Papers Vol. 6, 378–379; “obligations and responsibilities” Papers Vol. 6, 372–373; “American intervention” Shepley to HST, 26 February 1946, GCM Papers 124/28, GCMRL; several hundred thousand David Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, 229, and Averell Harriman Oral History, GCMRL; loose talk of World War III Papers Vol. 6, 377; “The Chinese have long been intent” Papers Vol. 6, 483.
345 “Every time I see soldiers” CKS diary, 24 January 1949, Hoover; “Since God loves me” CKS diary, 8 June 1948, Hoover.
345 Chiang had been hearing Bullitt letter, 22 May 1948, JM Papers 3, HSTL, and Shaw, American, 223; “If Marshall does not change” CKS diary, 30 November 1947, Hoover; Thomas Dewey Tsou, America’s, 489; messages from Wedemeyer AW to Stuart, 25 October 1948, AW Papers 98/76, Hoover; Chen Li-fu Boorman, Biographical Dictionary, Vol. 1, 210; seeing Marshall Papers Vol. 6, 501; “almost mystical” Cohen, America’s Response, 161; troops withdrawing into cities Belden, China Shakes, 415; Dewey led in the polls Gallup, Gallup, 749 and 757.
345 “The diplomatic situation” Tanner, Where, 275.
346 “hope to those who desperately” Stoler, George C. Marshall, 167.
346 Marshall had expected that American success Papers Vol. 6, 243; “long-anticipated crisis,” Pessimistic strategists CIA Review of the world situation, 17 November 1948, Secretary’s Files 178/27, HST Papers, HSTL; “When the issue of subservience” Memorandum for the National Security Council on Possible Developments in China, 3 November 1948, National Security Council Files 8/6, HST Papers, HSTL.
346 Chen Li-fu Papers Vol. 6, 503; “extension of the Marshall Plan” Wang to GCM, 27 December 1949, GCM Papers 164/8, GCMRL; Another would acknowledge Li to GCM, 5 May 1949, GCM Papers 60/36, GCMRL; $3 billion Summary of U.S. aid to China, 2 March 1948, AW Papers 101/30, Hoover; more than half military Paine, Wars, 246; “dispersion of U.S. resources” Minutes of National Security Council, 23 November 1948, Secretary’s Files 178/27, HST Papers, HSTL.
347 “all the American women,” General Flicker Madame CKS to KTM, 19 September 1948, KTM Papers, GCMRL; just below Eleanor Roosevelt Jespersen, American Images, 106; pleaded for increased assistance Director of Central Intelligence memo, 10 December 1948, Secretary’s Files 152/1, HST Papers, HSTL; see that her pleaded had failed CKS diary, 5 December 1948, Hoover.
347 “People want action” Transcript of GCM comments, Conference on Problems of United States Policy in China, Secretary’s Files 152/4, HST Papers, HSTL.
347 “who lost us” Taylor, Generalissimo, 388; Chiang wished he had prevented CKS diary, 16 June 1951, Hoover.
347 scattered his forces Taylor, Generalissimo, 393; overcommitted Eastman, “Who Lost,” 664; “muddle-headed,” “degenerate” Eastman, “Who Lost,” 658–659; “I increasingly realize” CKS diary, 20 August 1949, Hoover.
348 Acheson’s takeaway Isaacson, Wise Men, 476; Chiang condemned it Westad, Decisive, 307; Mao held it up Tsou, America’s, 510; Mao’s paranoia Westad, Decisive, 307; “whitewash” Isaacson, Wise Men, 476.
348–349 “full-dress attack” New York Times 25 June 1949; “moral retreat” Lewis McCarroll Purifoy, Harry Truman’s China Policy, 116; John F. Kennedy Purifoy, Harry Truman’s, 110, and Dallek, Lost, 226; fight Communism in Vietnam Yergin, Shattered, 406; “plunged by political” Papers Vol. 7, 9.
349 “exploit . . . any rifts” Gaddis, Strategies, 68; “Even if the devil” Gaddis, Strategies, 100.
349 Mao went out of his way, responded to American feelers Chen Jian, “The Myth of America’s ‘Lost Chance’ in China,” 81–82; “It is not possible” Hunt, Genesis, 180; wary of CCP independence Murray, “Stalin,” 16; “The Russians cannot dominate” Harding, Sino-American, 165.
349 Although Soviet aid to Mao Tanner, Where, 277; “They were Communists” Transcript of GCM comments, Conference on Problems of United States Policy in China, Secretary’s Files 152/4, HST Papers, HSTL.
350 revolutionary euphoria Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars, 367; What had changed John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know, 290; Mao could help Kim Roberts, Stalin’s, 368; Mao in a quagmire Gaddis, We Now Know, 76.
350 He needed to drag Marshall Papers Vol. 7, 130; “When the President motors down” Papers Vol. 7, 146; “They are still charging me” Cray, General, 685; six months Stoler, George C. Marshall, 182.
351 “Jenner? Jenner?” Cray, General, 686.
351 He had told reporters that defeating Papers Vol. 7, 478; “unfinished China war” Walter Judd Oral History, HSTL.
351 “If we lose this war” Papers Vol. 7, 478.
351–352 “cold-blooded calculation” Papers Vol. 7, 463; Marshall was adamant George F. Kennan, The Kennan Diaries, 258–259; “a very small peninsula” Papers Vol. 7, 463; “carefully laid Russian trap” Papers Vol. 7, 260; Countering demands Papers Vol. 7, 504; “the wrong war” Cray, General, 720.
352 praise of Marshall’s efforts Cotter to GCM, 6 September 1946, GCM Papers 122/26, GCMRL; “greatest blunders” Papers Vol. 7, 550.
352 “empty triumph” Papers Vol. 7, 903; “dynamic force” Papers Vol. 7, 95; reinforced by both Papers Vol. 7, 383.
352 “benighted people” Papers Vol. 7, 765.
353 “You have earned your retirement” Papers Vol. 7, 630; “This does not seem as remarkable to me” Papers Vol. 7, 811.
354 Wedemeyer helped quietly McCarthy to AW, 13 January 1953, AW Papers 49/7, Hoover; “easy prey” Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports!, 369; “so disheartened and demoralized” Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer, 403; “not to be completely factual” Caraway memoir, Paul Caraway Papers, MHI.
354 “sobering lesson” Pogue, Statesman, 497; When he got in front o
f the crowd Smith, Eisenhower, 544; “sold him out” McCullough, Truman, 912.
355 “dirty business” Papers Vol. 7, 852; “I felt because of the vigorous attacks” Smith, Eisenhower, 523; “I pray especially” GCM to Eisenhower, 7 November 1952, GCM Papers 228/10, GCMRL.
355 Frank McCarthy McCarthy to Eisenhower, 3 August 1954, Frank McCarthy Papers, GCMRL; “I know how sensitive” McCarthy to KTM, 5 August 1954, Frank McCarthy Papers, GCMRL.
355 “If I have to explain at this point” Cray, General, 723; Vouching for former aides Papers Vol. 7, 80; issued a warning Papers Vol. 7, 83.
355–356 “desperation on our side” Russell F. Sizemore, “The Prudent Cold Warrior,” 203; “difficult to sit by” Sizemore, “Prudent,” 206.
356 help refugees GCM to Judd, 26 April 1952, GCM Papers 222/6, GCMRL; pushed for asylum Papers Vol. 7, 704; signed a petition Madame CKS to GCM, 21 December 1953, GCM Papers 225/37, GCMRL; Cold War delirium Westad, Brothers, 20.
357 “wasteland” Kahn, China Hands, 275; “God almighty” Robert A. Caro, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Passage of Power, 534.
357 Truman called Marshall New York Times 17 October 1959; Eisenhower New York Times 17 October 1959; Kennan New York Times 18 October 1959.
357 When Chiang heard CKS diary, 17 October 1959, Hoover.
Postscript: Substitutes for Victory?
359 “trying to keep to the things” Marshall interviews, 556.
359 “You are dealing all the time” Marshall interviews, 407.
359–360 “Monday-quarterback business” Marshall interviews, 416; “later states of mind” Marshall interviews, 406.
361 “had lost their effectiveness” Richard E. Neustadt, Thinking in Time, 86; calling Vietnam an opportunity; Walter Judd Oral History, HSTL; Even into the 1980s See, for example, Jeane Kirkpatrick’s “Dictatorships and Double Standards,” Commentary Magazine, November 1979; “the whole course of the subsequent Cold War” May, “When Marshall,” 1003–1004.
361 Odd Arne Westad Westad, “Losses,” 105.
362 “It continually introduces the factor of one’s own reputation” Papers Vol. 3, 208.
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