In the past I have done a great deal of testing of mail, on all of the average sizes given above. I found the most effective mail was riveted and made with soft iron wire. The soft mail has a tendency to fold around a sword blade, rather than be cut. Spring steel mail and case hardened mail put up a little more resistance, but then would break or shatter and allow a sword to cut deeper. Riveted mail was much more resistant to thrusts.
When struck with maces, hammers, or clubs, mail showed a positively gory tendency to grind itself into whatever was underneath. It did not stop the shock of the blow, and when using a pig shoulder joint, the mail cut through the leather backing and into the meat itself. A padded undergarment helps distribute the shock of the blow and improves the effectiveness of mail. A partially educated guess would be about 30 percent improvement. Not a figure to be ignored when it's your hide you are protecting.
Hank cutting mail on a pig shoulder.
Photo by Patrick Gibbs.
A lot of men chose not to wear mail. It is heavy, and it does slow you down. It also feels like a radiator unless you wear good padding underneath. In the summer it is very hot, and in the winter it is very cold. You can get used to it. When I was active in sparring with sword and shield with various friends, I would put on my mail shirt. It was one I had made, and weighed in, after I learned how to tailor it, at 29 pounds and ran down to mid thigh. I had no problem moving in it at all, and made it a practice to run at least a mile four times a week wearing the shirt. If the shirt is tightly belted, about half of the weight is suspended from the hips, and it all doesn't hang from the shoulders. At times I wore a padded undergarment. But I lived in Alabama and sparring in 95-degree heat with a padded gambeson and mail shirt made me yearn for winter. As a warrior I would have demanded an air conditioned battlefield. One can also see why I envied Icelandic Vikings.
Another form of armor that was used was lamellar. This consisted of small flat plates of metal that were joined above and below so as to form a thin plate surface that was slightly flexible. It was more rigid than mail, but also somewhat lighter. It was used during and after the Roman period, but seems to have lost favor and was gradually replaced by mail. Although never fully abandoned, it was certainly not common.
HELMET
The next item of importance in the field of armor was the helmet. There is only one known helmet that dates from the Viking period. This is the Gjermundbu helmet, originally found in a burial mound in Norway and now housed in the Museum of National Antiquities in Oslo. It is in pretty bad shape, but its basic outline can be seen. The most notable thing about it is the extensive eye and nasal protection, to where the helmet looks like it has goggles. This can be seen in earlier helmets from the North, and was probably a very common feature. But this wasn't the only type of helmet worn. There were conical styles that we now term "Norman," there were helmets that we would call kettle hats, and old Carolingian style helmets. One thing we know they didn't wear was hats with horns or wings. That is Victorian nonsense. (Although I will admit I think the wings look kind of dressy.)
Reproduction of the Gjermundbu helmet.
As the Viking Age drew to a close, the helmets became more uniform, with the conical style being the most popular. By the beginning of the 12th century, the head was frequently covered with a full helm. While generally providing great protection, there were drawbacks. Despite vision slots and breathing holes, reduced vision and lack of air persisted, especially if fighting on foot.
Reproduction Viking helmet.
Photos this page by Peter Fuller.Reproduction Norman helmet.
Reproduction kettle hat.
Photos this page by Peter Fuller.
The medieval knight was essentially a horseman, and he did most of his fighting on horseback. He rode with a long stirrup, and when actually using his sword he stood in the saddle, and fought from a moving platform. Other than standing, and using his knees to guide his horse, he didn't use his leg muscles much. Now these huge thigh muscles devour oxygen at a tremendous rate. Much, much more than do the muscles of the back, arms and shoulders. So you can fight pretty well on horseback, but on foot you simply do not get the oxygen that the body requires. Like athletes today, some were better at it than others, but even the good ones needed the oxygen.
Reproduction full helm. HRC348.
All helmets were handmade, and even those produced by the same smith would probably vary in thickness and weight. Sometimes this was probably requested by the owner. One might prefer a little less weight, another would want it as heavy and as strong as he could get it. Weights and thicknesses seemed to vary from what we would term eighteen gauge to a heavy one that would be as thick as fourteen gauge. But the average conical helmet seems to have been slightly less than sixteen gauge in thickness.
Sixteen gauge is good protection; a sword really isn't going to cut through it. But it would damn sure rattle your brains to catch a hard blow on the side of the head. It's problematical how much damage it would do, but it isn't something I am going to volunteer to find out.
The great helms of the Middle Ages gave almost foolproof protection against sword blows, and a great deal against mace blows. Large axes and halberds are a different matter. Even if they didn't penetrate the iron of the helm they could drive it down on the head and crack the skull, and in some cases have been known to actually cut into the helmet.
Helmets were usually not steel, but iron. A very rich knight might have a helmet that was made of steel, or case hardened iron, but usually the helmet was made of iron. This means that it usually wasn't as hard as the sword edge, but that doesn't mean the sword could cut through it.[1]
SHIELDS
Probably the most important item of defensive armor was the shield. You could be in real trouble if you were caught without one. But a shield is also a nuisance to carry, so a lot of people were caught without one. It is obvious from the sagas that the thickness varied a great deal. You can read of thin shields and some that are described as thick and strong.
Round reproduction shield made by Peter Fuller for Hank Reinhardt. HRC401.
Vikings shields were generally round, and varied in width from 20 to 42 inches. They were made of boards glued together on the ends. The center of the shield was cut out for the hand, and the hand was then covered by a bowl shaped piece of metal called a boss. Often the rim of the shield would be covered by a strip of rawhide that was laced, or even glued to the edges. This was good protection, and also helped hold the boards together. On rare occasions the rim of the shield might be reinforced with iron. The shield was gripped in the center where there was a grip, usually of iron. There may, or may not, depending on personal preference, be a strap to secure the left forearm to the shield. While primarily a defensive tool, it could be used offensively, too. A punch to the side of the head with a ten-pound shield can easily break someone's neck. The shield can also be used to drive an opponent's shield in a direction that will open him up for a sword cut.
Reproduction shield made by Peter Fuller, back.
Photo by Peter Fuller.
Although round predominated, it was not the only shape. You can have oval ones, and square ones, and later you will have the typical kite shaped shield that is referred to as "Norman." There is very strong evidence that suggests that the kite shaped shield originated in the Near East, and was brought back to Europe by returning members of the Varangian Guard in Byzantium. Nevertheless, there was a lot of individual preference.
Reproduction shield made by Peter Fuller.
Photo by Peter Fuller.
For someone living in our standardized age it is frequently confusing and even difficult to grasp that nothing was consistent or standardized. Uniforms were still several hundred years in the future. The Viking Age didn't end at 12 midnight October 14, 1066, with everybody jumping around shouting "We're now in the Middle Ages." Armor and swords didn't change overnight, and a blade could be in use for well over a hundred years, and a mail shirt that belonged to grandad mi
ght just fit you. One of the hardest things in discussing this subject with someone who is just getting started, is that there are no hard and fast rules. If someone doesn't have a helmet, and gets hold of one that is two hundred years old, he'll wear it. Better to be old fashioned than to have your skull split!
Reproduction flatiron shield made by Peter Fuller for Hank Reinhardt. HRC381.
The kite shield began to dominate Europe by the 11th century. It was ideal on horseback, as it protected most of your left side, and on foot it gave good protection to the left leg. True, it wasn't quite as effective a weapon as a good round shield, but it could be used that way. As coverage of the body in armor increased, the shield became somewhat smaller, soon ending up in the classic flatiron shape so beloved by all. After all, it is a great way to display your arms, and looks really cool hanging in back of your high seat.
The kite shield was fairly thick, being close to an average of one-half inch in thickness. These were generally covered in leather and decorated in gesso, with a weight of ten to twelve pounds. They were very sturdy, and their primary purpose was to divert the lance of the opponent. Foot soldiers at this time carried all types of shields, but as armor improved and became more accessible, it was more important that they carry a weapon that could defeat the armor, a two-hand weapon, and so the shield began to lose favor. It never fully went out of use but its popularity did dwindle considerably starting about 1400.
OFFENSIVE WEAPONS
A warrior who wanted to survive had to be familiar with all types of weapons: sword, axe, bow, spear, halberd. Although he may have a favorite weapon, he may not be guaranteed that he has it when he needs it. If you're attacked when you're out cutting wood, you'd better know how to use an axe. If you had thrown your spear, you needed to be able to pick up some dead guy's halberd and use it.
HALBERDS AND HEWING SPEARS
Although there are a surprisingly large number of Bronze Age, Iron Age, Dark Age and Viking Age weapons still in existence, there are also a lot of weapons of which we do not have samples. Consider the Maceijowski Bible. It shows sword-like items, strangely shaped spears and weird polearms, none with existing copies. Similarly, we read of the hewing spear, but have no remains that we can identify as the specific weapons.
Reproduction of chopper from the Maceijowski Bible. HRC51.
So I would first like to clarify the definition of "halberd." This term is used in the English translation of the Norse sagas, as well as "bill," and both these are translations from the Icelandic for the term "hewing spear." The hewing spear was clearly a very formidable weapon, and used by many. It appears all through the sagas, and is a source of frustration for me—and tracking it down might be termed my personal quest. For I have been unable to determine what the weapon looked like, and I've been searching for thirty years or more, so far with no success. But I am convinced that in the basement of some museum there is a strange looking weapon, and no one knows exactly what it is and, alas, does not care.
Viking hewing spear as envisioned by Hank Reinhardt.
We do know from written descriptions that the hewing spear is a polearm, and one that is light enough to be thrown, though probably not very far, but with tremendous force. We know that it has a very sharp point, with a blade long enough to go all the way through someone, and we also know that it has a blade capable of cutting a man in half. Thorolf kills Earl Hring by stabbing him through the body, and then picking him up and planting the halberd butt first in the ground, and leaving him there. Another time a different hero, Gunnar, cuts a man in half with one.
In Egil's Saga there is a description of the halberd. "The thrusting spear he carried had a blade two ells (approximately six feet) long with four edges tapering to a point on one end and broad at the other. The socket was long and wide and no taller than might be grasped at the socket by the hand, but wonderfully thick. There was an iron spike in the socket and the whole shaft was bound with iron. It was the kind of spear that is called a halberd."
I can fantasize and sketch my thoughts, but I still don't know what it looked like. But I have hopes that one day I'll run across something that will give me a more positive clue than just my imagination.
SPEAR & LANCE
The spear was by far the most common weapon. Its length gives it a definite advantage over the sword alone, and it can be hurled as well. Many people are amazed at how effective a quarter staff is as a weapon. The spear has the same capabilities, with a sharp point on the end. It was also not as expensive as the sword. But the desire to decorate one's weapon takes hold, and richly ornamented spears are not only mentioned, but have been found as well.
Indeed, grave finds have been rich in spears, with several being found in just one grave. The abundance of the weapon shows how prevalent its use was. Only rarely have the mostly wooden shafts been found, and these are usually quite decayed. But traces show the length of the shafts in many cases. Size ranges from about five feet to well over eleven feet! This longer length must have been difficult to manage. Although there is no record of the Vikings using the lance on horseback, it probably occurred very late in the period. After all, the Normans still had some ties with their homeland. But one use for a spear this long would have been when two ships were about to join for battle. This reach would have been an advantage, and once the ships were joined together the spear could have been dropped in favor of a shorter weapon.
Shafts seemed to be about one inch in diameter, with a few being slightly larger. The most common wood used was ash, although it appears that other woods, such as oak and elm, were also used. Hard, tough woods are a necessity in a spear shaft, and even using these woods it was still possible to have them cut in half. Although we have a large number of spears, we are unable to tell exactly into what class each one falls. The Vikings mention a "hoggspjot," which translates as a hewing or cutting spear; a "gaflak," which was a type of javelin; an "atgeir," which appears to be a type of halberd or bill; a "skepti-fletta," which appears to be a spear with a cord attached; a "kesja," which is somewhat undetermined; and a "snoeris-spjot," which is a string spear.
A string spear.
The string spear is quite interesting, and a kind that I have made and played with. The shaft has a string wrapped around the center near the balance point, and as the spear is thrown, the string is held and as the spear is released, the string is pulled sharply, giving additional momentum and spin to the spear. This should increase the range and accuracy of the throw. In our experiments, several of my friends were able to get an additional 15–30 feet in distance, and their accuracy was much improved. It didn't help me at all. I'm one of those people who can't throw, not a rock, baseball, football, or spear. The only thing I can throw is an axe, but the arm motion is different.
Hooked spears were also used. Hooks can be most useful. You can pull someone off of a horse, catch their leg and trip them, or better still, hook the shield, pull it down and then thrust with the spear. In Egil's Saga there is the following description of Egil carrying a hooked spear:
Antique hooked spear, circa 1475-1575, head 39 inches long, with shaft 94 inches overall length. HRC4.
"It was seen from the Thing that a body of men rode down along Gljufra River, and that shields glittered there. When these arrived a man in a blue cloak rode foremost; he had a gilt helmet on his head and a gold ornamented shield at his side; in his hand a hooked spear, the socket of its head was inlaid with gold; he was girt with a sword. This was Egil Skallagrimsson."
The head of a barbed spear.
Another very popular spear was the barbed spear. From the grave finds these appear to be javelins, which makes a great deal of sense. If you're using the spear as a hand weapon, you don't want to get it stuck. But if you're throwing it, then it stands to reason that you want to do as much damage as possible, and don't want the spear thrown back at you. If the spear hits anything the barbs will prevent or delay its being withdrawn.
Medieval spears were frequently pattern welded. Often
a broken sword might be salvaged and re-forged into a spear, as was done with the sword "Greyflank" when it was broken. The spear was a well loved weapon, and often named, such as Odin's spear, "Gungnir." The kennings describing spears in the sagas are also delightful, and the spear was oft referred to as a serpent: the serpent of the shield, the serpent of battle, wound serpent.
The lance was a horseman's weapon, and dominated the battlefield for several hundred years. It took the English longbow and the Swiss pikeman to finally put an end to its dominance. But in its heyday it was a fearsome weapon. Essentially a stout spear ranging from nine to twelve feet in length, it presented a really frightening picture when you had to face it. I think it was in the Real De Armeria in Madrid when this first hit me. There was a fully armored knight on display, with his lance lowered as if in the charge. When I looked at it closely I thought of what it would be like to be standing in a line of infantry and seeing this coming at me. I really did yearn for a pike or a longbow. (Truthfully, I would have preferred a .50 cal., but that would have been cheating.) I felt the same way in the Tower of London looking at the suit of plate armor that is about 6 feet 10 inches! The thought of this coming at you on a battlefield is positively disconcerting!
Hank Reinhardt's The Book of the Sword Page 10