33.Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, ‘Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung’, BMJ, 30 September 1950, pp. 740–9.
34.Ernest L. Wynder and E. A. Graham, ‘Tobacco Smoking as a Possible Aetiologic Factor in Bronchiogenic Carcinoma’, JAMA, 1950, Vol. 143, pp. 329–37.
35.A. Bradford Hill, ‘Do You Smoke?’, BMJ, 10 November 1951, p. 1157.
36.Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, ‘Mortality of Doctors in Relation to Their Smoking Habits’, BMJ, 26 June 1954, pp. 1451–5.
37.A. Bradford Hill, ‘Smoking and Cancer of the Lung’, The Lancet, 1957, Vol. 2, p. 1289, in response to peripatetic correspondence: ‘In England Now’, The Lancet, 1957, Vol. 2, p. 1226.
38.Richard Doll et al., ‘Mortality in Relation to Smoking: Forty Years’ Observation on Male British Doctors’, BMJ, 1994, Vol. 309, pp. 901–9. See also David Sharp, ‘Cancer Prevention Tomorrow’, The Lancet, 1993, Vol. 341, p. 486.
39.A. Bradford Hill, ‘Heberden Oration, 1965: Reflections on the Controlled Trial’, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 1966, Vol. 25, pp. 107–13.
40.A. Bradford Hill, ‘The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1965, Vol. 58, pp. 295–300.
41.Alvin R. Feinstein, ‘Limitations of Randomised Trials’, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1983, Vol. 99, pp. 544–50. See also Brian Cromie, ‘The Feet of Clay of the Double-blind Trial’, The Lancet, 1963, Vol. 2, pp. 994–7; H. A. F. Dudley, ‘The Controlled Clinical Trial and the Advance of Reliable Knowledge: An Outsider Looks In’, BMJ, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 957–60; correspondence, M. Baum et al., BMJ, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 1216–18; Bruce G. Charlton, ‘The Future of Clinical Research: From Mega-trials Towards Methodological Rigour and Representative Sampling’, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 159–69; John C. Bailar, ‘The Promise and Problems of Meta-analysis’, NEJM, 1997, Vol. 337, pp. 559–61; S. Blinkhorn, ‘Meta Better’, Nature, 1998, Vol. 392, pp. 671–2.
4: 1952: Chlorpromazine and the Revolution in Psychiatry
GENERAL READING
Arvid Carlsson, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 1978, Vol. 10, pp. 19–40.
David Healy, ‘The History of British Psychopharmacology’, 150 Years of British Psychiatry, Vol. 2: The Aftermath, ed. Hugh Freeman and German E. Berrios (Athlone Press, 1996).
‘History of Psychopharmacology’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 1990, Vol. 4 (Special Issue).
Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry (Chichester: John Wiley &Sons, 1997).
REFERENCES
1.Brian Barraclough in conversation with David Clark, Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1986, Vol. 10, pp. 42–9.
2.J. Elkes and C. Elkes, ‘Effect of Chlorpromazine on the Behaviour of Chronically Overactive Psychotic Patients’, BMJ, 4 September 1954, pp. 560–5.
3.H. Rolin, ‘Festina Lente: A Psychiatric Odyssey’, The Memoire Club, BMJ, 1990.
4.F. Peters, The World Next Door (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1949).
5.Giuseppe Epifanio in Rivista di Patologia Nervosa e Mentale, 1915, Vol. 20, pp. 273–308.
6.M. Sakel in Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 1934, Vol. 84, pp. 112–13.
7.L. von Meduna in Zeitschrift für die Gesante Neurologie, 1935, p.237.
8.Ugo Cerletti in Archivio Generale di Neurologia, 1938, Vol. 19, pp. 266–8.
9.E Moniz, ‘Prefrontal Leucotomy and the Treatment of Mental Disorders’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 1937, Vol. 93, pp. 1379–85.
10.Aubrey Lewis, ‘On the Place of Physical Treatment in Psychiatry’, British Medical Bulletin, 1945, Vol. 3, p. 614.
11.H. Laborit in Acta Chirurgica Belgica, 1949, Vol. 48, pp. 485–92.
12.A comprehensive account of Laborit’s discovery of chlorpromazine is to be found in Judith P. Swazey, Chlorpromazine in Psychiatry: A Study of Therapeutic Innovation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974). See also Anne E. Caldwell, Origins of Psychopharmacology from CPZ to LSD (Charles C. Thomas, 1970).
13.Paul Charpentier and Simone Courvoisier in the Journal of Clinical Experimental Psychopharmacology, 1956, Vol. 17, p. 25.
14.Jean Delay, Pierre Deniker and J.-M. Harl, ‘Utilisation en Thérapeutique psychiatrique d’une phenothiazine d’action centrale élective’, Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 1952, Vol. 110, pp. 112–20. See also E. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry.
15.Roland Kuhn in Schweizerich Medizinisch Wochenschrift, 1957, Vol. 87, pp. 1135–40. See also G. E. Crane, ‘Psychiatric Side-effects of Iproniazid’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 1956, Vol. 112, pp. 494–501; John Cade, ‘Lithium Salt in the Treatment of Psychotic Excitement’, Medical Journal of Australia, 3 September 1949, pp. 349–51; L. H. Steinbach, ‘The Benzodiazipene Story’, Progress in Drug Research, 1978, Vol. 22, pp. 229–66.
16.J. Delay and P. Deniker, ‘Neuroleptic Effects of Chlorpromazine in Therapeutics of Neuropsychiatry’, International Record of Medicine and GP Clinics, May 1955, pp. 318–26.
5: 1952: The Copenhagen Polio Epidemic and the Birth of Intensive Care
GENERAL READING
Richard Atkinson and Thomas Boulton, The History of Anaesthesia (Carnforth: Parthenon, 1987).
Jennifer Beinart, A History of the Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford 1937–87 (Oxford: OUP, 1987).
David A. Davies, Historical Vignettes of Modern Anaesthesia (Oxford: Blackwell, 1968).
Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
Bjorn Ibsen, ‘From Anaesthesia to Anaesthesiology: Personal Experiences in Copenhagen During the Past 25 Years’, Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 1975, Supplement 61.
H. C. A. Lassen, Management of Life-Threatening Poliomyelitis, Copenhagen 1952–56 (E & S Livingstone, 1956).
G. L. Wackers, ‘Modern Anaesthesiological Principles for Bulbar Polio: Manual IPPR in the 1952 Polio Epidemic in Copenhagen’, Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 1994, Vol. 38, pp. 420–31.
REFERENCES
1.H. C. A. Lassen, ‘A Preliminary Report on the 1952 Epidemic of Poliomyelitis in Copenhagen’, The Lancet, 1953, Vol. 1, pp. 37–41.
2.F. W. Peabody, ‘A Clinical Study of Acute Poliomyelitis’, quoted in Tony Gould, A Summer Plague.
3.Philip Drinker, ‘Prolonged Administration of Artificial Respiration’, The Lancet, 1931, Vol. 1, pp. 1186–8.
4.H. C. A. Lassen, Management of Life-Threatening Poliomyelitis.
5.G. L. Wackers, ‘Modern Anaesthesiological Principles for Bulbar Polio’.
6.A full account of the events leading up to Dr Ibsen’s proposal of mechanical ventilation of polio victims can be found in G. L. Wackers, ‘Innovation in Artificial Respiration: How the “Iron Lung” Became a Museum Piece’, Technologies of Modern Medicine, ed. Ghislaine Lawrence (Science Museum, 1994).
7.W. Ritchie Russell, Poliomyelitis (Edward Arnold, 1952).
8.A. Crampton-Smith et al., ‘Artifical Respiration by Intermittent Positive Pressure in Poliomyelitis and Other Diseases’, The Lancet, 1954, Vol. 1, p. 939. See also interview with A. Crampton-Smith in Jennifer Beinart, A History of the Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford 1937–87.
9.H. R. Griffith and J. E. Johnson, ‘The Use of Curare in General Anaesthesia’, Anaesthesiology, 1942, Vol. 3, pp. 418–20.
10.T. C. Gray and J. Halton, ‘A Milestone in Anaesthesia?’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1946, Vol. 39, pp. 400–10. See also Thomas Boulton, ‘T. Cecil Gray and the “Disintegration of the Nervous System”’, Survey of Anaesthesiology, 1994, Vol. 38, pp. 239–52.
11.Thomas Boulton, personal communication, 1997.
12.H. Pontoppidan, ‘Respiratory Failure: Management and Outcome’, Major Issues in Critical Care Medicine, ed. J. E. Parrillo (Philadelphia, PA: Williams & Wilkins, 1984), pp. 169–76.
6: 1955: Open-Heart Surgery – The Last Frontier
GENERAL READING
Louis J. Acierno, The History of Cardiology (Carnforth: Parthe
non,1994).
Richard J. Bing (ed.), Cardiology: The Evolution of the Science and the Art (Reading: Harwood Academic, 1992).
Raymond Hurt, The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery from Early Times (Carnforth: Parthenon, 1996).
Stephen L. Johnson, The History of Cardiac Surgery, 1896–1955 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970).
Harris B. Shumacker, The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992).
H. A. Snellen, History and Perspectives of Cardiology (Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1981).
REFERENCES
1.L. Eloesser, ‘Milestones in Chest Surgery’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1970, Vol. 60, pp. 157–165.
2.Christian Barnard, One Life (Harrap, 1970).
3.H. B. Taussig and Alfred Blalock, ‘Surgical Treatment of Malformation of the Heart’, JAMA, 1945, Vol. 128, p. 189.
4.Letters from Lord Brock to Mark Ravitch (September 1965), in Raymond Hurt, The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery.
5.R. C. Brock, ‘Pulmonary Valvulotomy for the Relief of Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis’, BMJ, 12 June 1948, p. 1121.
6.T. H. Sellors, ‘Surgery of Pulmonary Stenosis’, The Lancet, 1948,p. 998.
7.E. C. Cutler, ‘Cardiotomy and Valvulotomy for Mitral Stenosis’, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1923, Vol. 188, pp. 1023–7.
8.H. S. Souttar, ‘The Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis’, BMJ, 1925, Vol. 2, pp. 603–7.
9.W. P. Cleland, ‘The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery in the United Kingdom’, Thorax, 1983, Vol. 38, pp. 887–96.
10.D. E. Harken, ‘Techniques for Approaching and Removing Foreign Bodies from Chambers of the Heart’, Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 1946, Vol. 83, pp. 117–25.
11.D. E. Harken et al., ‘The Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis’, NEJM, 1948, Vol. 239, pp. 891–909.
12.D. E. Harken, ‘The Emergence of Cardiac Surgery’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 805–13.
13.J. H. Gibbon, ‘The Development of the Heart/Lung Apparatus’, American Journal of Surgery, 1978, Vol. 135, pp. 608–19.
14.J. H. Gibbon, ‘Medicine’s Living History’, Medical World News, 1972, Vol. 13, p. 47.
15.Quoted in Stephen L. Johnson, The History of Cardiac Surgery, 1896–1955.
16.J. H. Gibbon, ‘Artificial Maintenance of the Circulation During Experimental Occlusion of the Pulmonary Artery’, Archives of Surgery, 1937, Vol. 34, p. 1105. See also J. H. Gibbon, ‘The Maintenance of Life During Experimental Occlusion of the Pulmonary Artery Followed by Survival’, Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 1939, Vol. 69, p. 602.
17.John W. Kirklin, ‘The Middle 1950s and C. Walton Lillehei’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 822–4.
18.J. H. Gibbon, ‘Application of a Mechanical Heart and Lung Apparatus to Cardiac Surgery’, Minnesota Medicine, 1954, Vol. 37,p. 171.
19.C. Walton Lillehei, ‘A Personalised History of Extra Corporeal Circulation’, Transactions of the American Society for Artificial Organs, 1982, Vol. 28, pp. 5–16.
20.H. E. Warden, ‘C. Walton Lillehei: Pioneer Cardiac Surgeon’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 823–45.
21.Hugh McLeave, The Risk Takers (Frederick Miller, 1962).
22.C. Walter Lillehai, ‘The Results of Direct Vision Closure of Ventricular Septal Defects in Eight Patients by Means of Controlled Cross-circulation’, Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 1955, pp. 147–465. See also C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Direct Vision Intracardiac Surgical Correction of the Tetralogy of Fallot’, Annals of Surgery, 1955, Vol. 142, pp. 418–45. (Lillehei subsequently reviewed the long-term results in ‘The First Open-heart Repairs: A Thirty-year Follow-up’, Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 1986, Vol. 41, pp. 4–21.)
23.Richard A. DeWall et al., ‘Simple Expendable Artificial Oxygenator for Open-heart Surgery’, Surgical Clinics of North America, 1956, Vol. 36, pp. 1025–34.
24.C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Cardio-pulmonary Bypass in Surgical Treatment of Congenital Acquired Cardiac Disease: Use in 305 Patients’, AMA Archives of Surgery, 1957, Vol. 75, pp. 928–45. See also C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Direct Vision Intracardiac Surgery in Man Using a Simple Disposal Artificial Oxygenator’, Diseases of the Chest, 1956, Vol. 29, p. 128; John W. Kirklin et al., ‘Intracardiac Surgery With the Aid of a Mechanical Pump/Oxygenator System (Gibbon Type), Report of 8 Cases’, PSMMC, 1955, Vol. 30, pp. 201–6; John W. Kirklin et al., ‘Surgical Treatment for the Tetralogy of Fallot’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1959, Vol. 37, pp. 22–51.
25.John W. Kirklin, ‘The Middle 1950s and C. Walton Lillehei’, Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 822–4.
26.Harris B. Shumacker, The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery.
27.Donald Longmore, Towards Safer Cardiac Surgery (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1981).
28.Christiaan Barnard, ‘The Operation’, South African Medical Journal, 1967, Vol. 41, pp. 1271–4.
7: 1961: New Hips for Old
GENERAL READING
John Charnley, Low-Friction Arthroplasty of the Hip: Theory and Practice (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979).
——, ‘The Development of the Centre for Hip Surgery at Wrightington Hospital’ in W. R. Swinburne (ed.), Wrightington Hospital 1933–83: The Story of the First Fifty Years (Wrightington Hospital, 1983).
David Le Vay, The History of Orthopaedics (Carnforth: Parthenon, 1990).
William Waugh, John Charnley: The Man and the Hip (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990).
REFERENCES
1.M. H. Williams et al., ‘Prevalence of Total Hip Replacement: How Demand Has Been Met’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 1994, Vol. 48, pp. 188–91. See also K. J. H. Newman, ‘Total Hip and Knee Replacements: A Survey of 261 Hospitals in England’, JRSM, 1993, Vol. 86, pp. 527–9.
2.F. G. Strange, The Hip (Heinemann, 1965).
3.W. Alexander Law, Osteoarthritis of the Hip (Butterworth,1952).
4.M. N. Smith-Petersen, ‘Evolution of the Mould Arthroplasty of the Hip Joint’, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1948, 30-B, p. 59. See also P. Wiles, ‘The Surgery of the Osteoarthritic Hip’, British Journal of Surgery, 1958, Vol. 45, pp. 488–9; J. Judet and R. Judet, Resection: Reconstruction of the Hip (E & S Livingstone, 1954); J. T. Scales and J. M. Zarek, ‘Biomechanical Problems of the Original Judet Prosthesis’, BMJ, 1954, Vol. 1, p. 1007; K. McKee, ‘Artificial Hip Joint’, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1951, 33-B, p. 465.
5.‘British Orthopaedic Association Annual Meeting Report’, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1954, 36-B, pp. 508–9.
6.William Waugh, John Charnley, p. 122.
7.John Charnley, ‘Arthroplasty of the Hip: A New Operation’, The Lancet, 1961, Vol. 1, pp. 1129–32. See also K. Hardinge, ‘The Development of the Charnley Low-Friction Arthroplasty’, Current Trends in Orthopaedic Surgery (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), pp. 242–5.
8.Ibid.
9.John Charnley, ‘The Lubrication of Animal Joints in Relation to Surgical Reconstruction by Arthroplasty’, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 1960, Vol. 19, pp. 10–19.
10.Nas S. Eftekhar, ‘The Life and Work of John Charnley’, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1986, Vol. 211, pp. 10–21.
11.John Charnley, Acrylic Cement in Orthopaedic Surgery (E & S Livingstone, 1970).
12.John Charnley, Low-Friction Arthroplasty of the Hip.
13.William Waugh, John Charnley, p. 122.
14.Ibid.
15.John Charnley, ‘Tissue Reaction to Polytetrafluorethylene’, The Lancet, 1963, Vol. 2, p. 1379.
16.John Charnley, ‘The Long-term Results of Low-friction Arthroplasty of the Hip Performed as a Primary Intervention’, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1972, Vol. 54, pp. 61–76.
17.B. M. Wroblewski, ‘15–21-year Results of the Charnley Low-friction Arthroplasty’, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Resear
ch, 1986, Vol. 211, pp. 30–5.
18.Christopher Bulstrode, ‘Keeping Up With Orthopaedic Epidemics’, BMJ, 1987, Vol. 295, p. 514.
8: 1963: Transplanting Kidneys
GENERAL READING
Leslie Brent, ‘Transplantation: Some British Pioneers’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians, 1997, Vol. 31, pp. 434–41.
Sir Roy Calne, The Ultimate Gift (Headline, 1998).
Francis D. Moore, A Miracle and a Privilege: Recounting a Half-Century of Surgical Advance (Washington, DC: Joseph Henry, 1995).
Joseph E. Murray, ‘Human Organ Transplantation: Background and Consequences’, Science, 1992, Vol. 256, pp. 1411–16.
Tony Stark, Knife to the Heart: The Story of Transplant Surgery (Macmillan, 1996).
Thomas Starzl, ‘Personal Reflections in Transplantation’, Surgical Clinics of North America, 1978, Vol. 58, pp. 879–93.
——, The Puzzle People: Memoirs of a Transplant Surgeon (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992).
REFERENCES
1.Peter Medawar, Memoir of a Thinking Radish (Oxford: OUP, 1986).
2.T. Gibson and P. Medawar, ‘The Fate of Skin Homografts in Man’, Journal of Anatomy, 1942/3, Vol. 77, p. 299.
3.R. E. Billingham, L. Brent and P. Medawar, ‘“Actively Acquired Tolerance” of Foreign Cells’, Nature, 1953, Vol. 172, p. 603. See also P. Medawar, ‘A Biological Analysis of Individuality’ (reprinted from the Times Science Review), Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1996, No. 326, pp. 5–10; P. Medawar, ‘Immunological Tolerance’, Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine, 1942–62 (New York: Elsevier, 1964).
4.R. Y. Calne, ‘Organ Transplantation: From Laboratory to Clinic’, BMJ, 1985, Vol. 291, pp. 1751–4.
5.W. J. Kolff and H. J. Berk, ‘The Artificial Kidney: Dialysis with a Great Area’, Acta Medica Scandanavica, 1944, Vol. CXVII, pp. 121–34. See also W. J. Kolff, ‘First Clinical Experience With the Artificial Kidney’, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1965, Vol. 62, pp. 608–19; Patrick McBride, ‘The Development of Haemodialysis and Peritoneal Dialysis’, in Clinical Dialysis, ed. Allen R. Nissenson (New York: Prentice Hall, 1990).
The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine Page 47