35.Peter J. Morris, ‘Pig Transplants Postponed’, BMJ, 1997, Vol. 314,p. 242.
36.Dorothy Nelkin, The Genome Mystique (Basingstoke: W. H. Freeman, 1997).
37.Ruth Hubbard and R. C. Lewontin, ‘Pitfalls of Genetic Testing’, NEJM, 1996, Vol. 334, pp. 1192–3.
38.R. C. Lewontin, ‘The Dream of the Human Genome’, New York Review of Books, 28 May 1992.
39.David Papermaster, ‘Necessary but Insufficient’, Nature Medicine, 1995, Vol. 1, pp. 874–5. See also Nicholas Short, ‘A Dose of Molecular Medicine’, Nature, 1993, Vol. 366, p. 505.
40.P. G. H. Gell, Destiny and the Genes: The Encyclopaedia of Medical Ignorance, eds R. Duncan and M. Weston-Smith (Kidlington: Pergamon, 1984).
2: Seduced by The Social Theory
GENERAL READING
Norman Dennis, The Invention of Permanent Poverty (Institute for Economic Affairs, 1997).
Raymond Illsley and Deborah Baker, ‘Contextual Variations and the Meaning of Health Inequality’, Social Science and Medicine, 1991, Vol. 32, pp. 359–65.
James Le Fanu, Eat Your Heart Out (Macmillan, 1987).
Peter Skrabanek and James McCormick, Follies and Fallacies in Medicine (Newton Stewart: Tarragon Press, 1989).
Peter Skrabanek, The Death of Humane Medicine and the Rise of Coercive Healthism (Social Affairs Unit, 1994).
P. M. Strong, ‘Black on Class and Mortality: Theory, Method and History’, Journal of Public Health Medicine, 1990, Vol. 12, pp. 168–80.
Aaron Wildavsky, But is it True?: A Citizen’s Guide to Environmental Health and Safety Issues (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
REFERENCES
1.Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis? (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979).
2.Richard Doll and Richard Peto, The Causes of Cancer (Oxford: OUP, 1981).
3.Samuel S. Epstein and Joel B. Swartz, ‘Fallacies of Lifestyle Cancer Theories’, Nature, 1981, Vol. 289, pp. 127–9.
4.Peter Townsend and Nick Davidson, The Black Report (Penguin, 1988).
5.Ian Kennedy, The Unmasking of Medicine (Allen & Unwin, 1981).
6.Simon Szreter, ‘The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain’s Mortality Decline’, Social History of Medicine, 1988, Vol. 1, pp. 1–19. See also Leonard G. Wilson, ‘The Historical Decline of Tuberculosis in Europe and America: Its Causes and Significance’, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 1990, Vol. 45, pp. 366–96; Johan P. Mackenbach, ‘The Contribution of Medical Care to Mortality Decline: McKeown Revisited’, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1996, Vol. 49, pp. 1207–13.
7.M. Cassidy, ‘Coronary Disease: The Harveian Oration’, The Lancet, 1946, Vol. 2, pp. 587–90.
8.J. W. McNee, ‘The Clinical Syndrome of Thrombosis of the Coronary Arteries’, Quarterly Journal of Medicine, October 1925, pp. 44–51.
9.I. Snapper, ‘Chinese Lessons in Medicine’, Interscience (New York: n.p., 1941).
10.Ancel Keys et al., ‘Mortality and Coronary Heart Disease Among Men Studied for Twenty-three Years’, Archives of Internal Medicine, 1971, Vol. 128, pp. 201–14. See also Ancel Keys et al., ‘The CVD Research Programme of the Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene: The Journal’, The Lancet, July 1961, pp. 291–5.
11.Ancel Keys et al., ‘Prediction of Serum Cholesterol Responses of Man to Changes in Fat in the Diet’, The Lancet, 1957, Vol. 2, pp. 959–66.
12.Ancel Keys, ‘From Naples to Seven Countries: A Sentimental Journey’, Progress in Biochemical Pharmacology, 1983, Vol. 19, p. 130.
13.Ancel Keys et al., ‘Lessons from Serum Cholesterol Studies in Japan, Hawaii and Los Angeles’, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1958, pp. 83–93.
14.George Pickering, ‘Pathogenesis of Myocardial Infarction’, BMJ, 29 February 1964, pp. 517–29.
15.Irvine H. Page et al., ‘Atherosclerosis and the Fat Content of the Diet’, Circulation, 1957, Vol. 16, pp. 163–78.
16.Jeremiah Stamler et al., ‘Diet and Serum Lipids in Atherosclerotic Coronary Heart Disease’, Medical Clinics of North America, 1963, Vol. 47, pp. 3–28.
17.‘Ad Hoc Committee on Dietary Fat and Atherosclerosis; Dietary Fat and its Relation to Heart Attack and Strokes’, Circulation, 1961, Vol. 23, pp. 133–6.
18.Mr Fit Research Group, ‘Multiple-risk Factor Intervention Trial’, JAMA, 1982, Vol. 248, pp. 1465–77.
19.WHO European Collaborative Group, ‘Multi-factorial Trial in Prevention of Heart Disease Incidence and Mortality Results’, European Heart Journal, 1983, Vol. 4, pp. 141–7.
20.Weldon J. Walker, ‘Coronary Mortality – What is Going on?’, JAMA, 1974, Vol. 227, pp. 1045–6. See also Reuel Stallones, ‘The Rise and Fall of Ischaemic Heart Disease’, Scientific American, 1980, Vol. 243, pp. 43–9.
21.G. Cannon and C. Walker, The Food Scandal (Century, 1984).
22.LRC-CPPT, ‘Reduction in Incidence of Coronary Heart Disease’, JAMA, 1984, Vol. 251, pp. 351–73. See also Editorial, ‘Is Reduction of Blood Cholesterol Effective?’, The Lancet, 1984, Vol. 1, pp. 317–18; Leon Simons, ‘The Lipid Hypothesis is Proven’, Medical Journal of Australia, 1984, Vol. 410, pp. 316–17.
23.Consensus Conference, ‘Lowering Blood Cholesterol to Prevent Heart Disease’, JAMA, 1985, Vol. 253, pp. 2080–7. See also ‘Campaign Seeks to Increase US Cholesterol Consciousness’, JAMA, 1986, Vol. 255, pp. 1097–1102.
24.George Davey Smith et al., ‘Should There Be a Moratorium on the Use of Cholesterol-lowering Drugs?’, BMJ, 1992, Vol. 304, pp. 431–4.
26.Valentine Fuster, ‘Aspirin in the Prevention of Coronary Disease’, NEJM, 1986, Vol. 321, pp. 183–5. See also John A. Mills, ‘Aspirin, the Ageless Remedy’, NEJM, 1991, Vol. 325, pp. 1303–4; R. Peto et al., ‘Randomised Trial of Prophylactic Daily Aspirin in British Male Doctors’, BMJ, 1988, Vol. 296, pp. 313–21; Steering Committee Preliminary Report, ‘Findings from the Aspirin Component of the Ongoing Physician’s Health Study’, NEJM, 1988, Vol. 318, pp. 262–4; M. J. Underwood, ‘The Aspirin Papers’, BMJ, 1994, Vol. 308, pp. 71–2.
27.Marcus de Wood et al., ‘Prevalence of Total Coronary Occlusion During the Early Hours of Transmural Myocardial Infarction’, NEJM, 1980, Vol. 303, pp. 897–902.
28.ISIS 2, ‘Randomised Trial of Intravenous Streptokinase, Oral Aspirin, Both or Neither Among 17,187 Cases of Suspected Acute Myocardial Infarction’, The Lancet, 1988, Vol. 2, pp. 349–59.
29.A. Shor et al., ‘Detection of Chlamydia in Coronary Arterial Fatty Streaks and Atheromatous Plaques’, South African Medical Journal, 1992, Vol. 82, pp. 158–61.
30.S. Epstein, ‘The Multiple Mechanisms by which Infection May Contribute to Atherosclerosis Development and Course,’ Circulation Research, 2002, Vol. 90, pp. 2–4.
31.G. M. Mead, ‘Chemotherapy for Solid Tumours: Routine Treatment Not Yet Justified’, BMJ, 1995, Vol. 310, pp. 146–7. See also Albert S. Braverman, ‘Medical Oncology in the 1990s’, The Lancet, 1991, Vol. 337, pp. 901–2; John Cairns, ‘Cancer Chemotherapy’, Science, 1983, Vol. 220, pp. 252–4.
32.John C. Bailar III, ‘The Case for Cancer Prevention’, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1979, Vol. 62, pp. 727–31. See also John Cairns, ‘The Treatment of Diseases and the War Against Cancer’, Scientific American, 1985, Vol. 253 (5), pp. 31–9; Mary M. Cohen, ‘Are We Losing the War on Cancer?’, Nature, 1986, Vol. 323, pp. 488–9; N. J. Temple and D. P. Burkitt, ‘The War on Cancer: Failure of Therapy and Research’, JRSM, 1991, Vol. 84, pp. 95–6; John C. Bailar III and Elaine Smith, ‘Progress Against Cancer?’, NEJM, 1986, Vol. 315, pp. 1226–32; correspondence: NEJM, 1986, Vol. 314, pp. 963–8; Tim Beardsley, ‘A War Not Won’, Scientific American, 1994, Vol. 1, pp. 118–26.
33.Richard Doll, Prevention of Cancer: Pointers from Epidemiology (Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1967).
34.Bruce Armstrong and Richard Doll, ‘Environmental Factors and Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Different Countries With Special Reference to Dietary Practices’, British Journal of Cancer, 1975, Vol. 15, pp. 617–31.<
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35.See Note 2.
36.J. Lyon et al., ‘Cancer Incidence in Mormons and Non-Mormons in Utah During 1967–75’, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1980, Vol. 65, pp. 1055–71. See also R. L. Phillips et al., ‘Mortality Among California Seventh-Day Adventists for Selected Cancer Sites’, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1980, Vol. 65, pp. 1097–1107.
37.Gary M. Williams and George T. Baker, ‘The Potential Relationships Between Ageing and Cancer’, Experimental Gerontology, 1992, Vol. 27, pp. 469–76. See also Douglas Dix, ‘The Role of Ageing and Cancer Incidence: An Epidemiological Study’, Journal of Gerontology, Biological Sciences, 1989, Vol. 44, pp. 10–18; Richard A. Miller, ‘Gerontology as Oncology’, Cancer, 1991, Vol. 68, pp. 2496–501.
38.R. Peto, ‘Distorting the Epidemiology of Cancer: The Need for a More Balanced Overview’, Nature, 1980, Vol. 284, pp. 297–300. See also Editorial, ‘Two Views of the Causes of Cancer’, Nature, 1981, Vol. 289, pp. 431–2.
39.See Note 3.
40.Gino J. Marco (ed.), Silent Spring Revisited (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1987).
41.Eric Chivian et al. (eds), Critical Condition: Human Health and the Environment (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993).
42.M. Tubiana, ‘The Carcinogenic Effect of Exposure to Low Doses of Carcinogens’, British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1992, Vol. 49, pp. 601–5. See also Ronald L. Kathren, ‘Pathway to a Paradigm: The Linear Non-threshold Dose-response Model in Historical Context’, Health Physics, 1996, Vol. 70, pp. 621–35.
43.Bruce N. Ames and Lois Gold, ‘Chemical Carcinogenesis: Too Many Rodent Carcinogens’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 1990, Vol. 87, pp. 7772–6. See also Editorial, ‘Testing for Carcinogens With Rodents’, Science, 1990, Vol. 249, P1357; correspondence: Science, 1990, Vol. 250, pp. 1644–6.
44.Stephen Safe, ‘Environmental and Dietary Oestrogens in Human Health: Is There a Problem?’, Environmental Health Perspectives, 1995, Vol. 103, pp. 346–51.
45.‘Investigation of Possible Increased Incidence of Cancer in Western Cumbria’, HMSO, 1984. See also David Sumner, ‘Low-level Radiation: How Dangerous is it?’, Medicine and War, 1990, Vol. 6, pp. 112–19; Paula Cook Mozaffari, ‘Cancer Near Potential Sites of Nuclear Installations’, The Lancet, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 1145–7.
46.J. W. Stather et al., ‘The Risk of Childhood Leukaemia Near Nuclear Establishments’, NRPB-R215 (HMSO, 1988).
47.Edward Campion, ‘Powerlines, Cancer and Fear’, NEJM, 1997, Vol. 337, pp. 45–7.
48.Aaron Wildavsky, But is it True?.
49.Alvan R. Feinstein, ‘Scientific Standards in Epidemiologic Studies of the Menace of Daily Life’, Science, 1988, Vol. 242, pp. 1257–63. See also Linda C. Mayes et al., ‘A Collection of Fifty-six Topics With Contradictory Results in Case Control Research’, International Journal of Epidemiology, 1988, Vol. 17, pp. 680–5.
50.Geoffrey Rose, ‘Sick Individuals and Sick Populations’, International Journal of Epidemiology, 1985, Vol. 14, pp. 32–8. See also Geoffrey Rose, ‘The Population Mean Predicts the Number of Deviant Individuals’, BMJ, 1990, Vol. 301, pp. 1031–5; Geoffrey Rose, The Strategy of Preventive Medicine (Oxford: OUP, 1992); Bruce Charlton, ‘A Critique of Geoffrey Rose’s “Population Strategy for Preventive Medicine”’, JRSM, 1995, Vol. 88, pp. 607–8.
51.Marcia Angell, ‘Clinical Research: What Should the Public Believe?’, NEJM, 1994, Vol. 331, pp. 189–90.
52.Gary Taubes, ‘Epidemiology Faces its Limits’, Science, 1995, Vol.269, pp. 164–6.
3: The Unsolved Problem: The Mysteries of Biology Revisited
REFERENCES
1.Y. Ben-Shlomo, ‘Dietary Fat and Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis’, Neuroepidemiology, 1992, Vol. 11, pp. 214–25.
2.D. A. S. Compston, ‘The Dissemination of Multiple Sclerosis’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 1990, Vol. 24, pp. 207–19. See also Bernard Souberbielle et al., ‘Is There a Case for a Virus Etiology in Multiple Sclerosis?’, Scottish Medical Journal, 1995, Vol. 40, pp. 55–6.
3.John F. Kurtzke et al., ‘Multiple Sclerosis in the Faroe Islands’, Neurology, 1986, Vol. 36, pp. 307–32.
4.Clark W. Heath and R. J. Hasterlik, ‘Leukaemia Among Children in a Suburban Community’, AJM, 1963, Vol. 34, pp. 796–812.
5.L. J. Kinlen, ‘Epidemiological Evidence for an Infective Basis in Childhood Leukaemia’, British Journal of Cancer, 1995, Vol. 71, pp. 1–5. See also M. F. Grieves, ‘Aetiology of Acute Leukaemia’, The Lancet, 1997, Vol. 1, pp. 344–9.
6.Martin J. Blaser, ‘Helicobacter Pylori and Gastric Diseases’, BMJ, 1998, Vol. 316, pp. 1507–10.
7.S. Shuster, ‘The Aetiology of Dandruff and the Mode of Action of Therapeutic Agents’, British Journal of Dermatology, 1984, Vol. 111, pp. 235–42.
8.Allen Steere et al., ‘The Spirochetal Aetiology of Lyme Disease’, NEJM, 1983, Vol. 308, pp. 731–40.
9.J. S. H. Gaston, ‘The Role of Infection in Inflammatory Arthritis’, Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 1984, Vol. 87, pp. 647–51. See also R.A. Hughes, ‘The Microbiology of Chronic Inflammatory Arthritis: An Historical View’, British Journal of Rheumatology, 1994, Vol. 33, pp. 361–9; W. W. Buchanan, ‘That Rheumatoid Arthritis Will Disappear?’, Journal of Rheumatology, 1979, Vol. 6, pp. 324–6; R.J. McKendry, ‘Is Rheumatoid Arthritis Caused by an Infection?’, The Lancet, 1995, Vol. 1, pp. 1319–20; A. Ebringer, ‘Klebsiella Anti-bodies in Ankylosing Spondylitis and Proteus Antibodies in Rheumatoid Arthritis’, British Journal of Rheumatology, 1988, Vol. 27 (supplement 2), pp. 72–85; J. S. H. Gaston, ‘Proteus: Is it a Likely Aetiological Factor in Chronic Polyarthritis?’, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 1995, Vol. 54, pp. 157–8.
10.S. Murakami et al., ‘Bell’s Palsy and Herpes Simplex Virus: Identification of Viral DNA in Endoneurial Fluid and Muscle’, Annals of Internal Medicine, 1996, Vol. 124, pp. 27–30.
11.D. Whitby et al., ‘Detection of Kaposi Sarcoma Associated Herpes Virus in Peripheral Blood of HIV-infected individuals and Progression to Kaposi’s Sarcoma’, The Lancet, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 799–802.
12.J. D. H. Morris, ‘Viral Infection and Cancer’, The Lancet, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 754–8.
13.G. B. Clements et al., ‘Coxsackie B Virus Infection and Onset of Childhood Diabetes’, The Lancet, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 221–3. See also M. Horwitz et al., ‘Diabetes Induced by Coxsackie Virus: Initiation by Bystander Damage and Not Molecular Mimicry’, Nature Medicine, 1998, Vol. 4, pp. 781–5.
14.R. Gallo et al., ‘Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses from Patients With AIDS and at Risk for AIDS’, Science, 1984, Vol. 224, pp. 500–3. See also Jean L. Mar, ‘Strong New Candidate for AIDS Agent’, Science, 1984, Vol. 224, pp. 475–7.
15.Stanley B. Prusiner, ‘Novel Proteinaceous Infectious Particles Cause Scrapie’, Science, 1982, Vol. 216, pp. 136–43. See also Stanley B. Prusiner, ‘Prion Diseases of Humans and Animals’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians, 1994, Vol. 28, 2S; Roger Rosenberg, ‘Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1997 Awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner’, Archives of Neurology, 1997, Vol. 54, p. 1456.
PART 4: THE RISE AND FALL: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
1: Learning from the Past
REFERENCES
1.John Horgan, The End of Science (Little, Brown, 1996). See also Bentley Glass, ‘Science: Endless Horizons or Golden Age?’, Science, 1971, Vol. 171, pp. 23–9.
2.M. Baum, ‘Screening for Breast Cancer: Time to Think – and Stop’, The Lancet, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 436–7.
3.Arthur J. Baskey, Worried Sick: Our Troubled Quest for Wellness (New York: Little, Brown, 1988).
4.Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind (HarperCollins, 1998).
2: Looking to the Future
REFERENCES
1.Lord Horder, ‘Whither Medicine?’, BMJ, 2 April 1949, pp. 557–60.
2.Gail Vines, ‘Starvation Diet’, New Scientist, 4 July 1998, p. 50.
3.Sir William Osler, quoted in Horder
, ‘Whither Medicine?’, BMJ, 2 April 1949, pp. 557–60.
4.Richard Horton, ‘A Manifesto for Reading Medicine’, The Lancet, 1997, Vol. 349, pp. 872–3.
5.Sandra J. Tanenbaum, ‘What Physicians Know’, NEJM, 1993, Vol. 329, pp. 1268–71. See also Gilbert M. Goldman, ‘The Tacit Dimension of Clinical Judgement’, Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 1993, Vol. 63, pp. 47–61.
6.Editorial, ‘Meta-analysis Under Scrutiny’, The Lancet, 1997, Vol. 350, p. 675. See also Samuel Shapiro, ‘Meta-analysis/Schmeta-analysis’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 1994, Vol. 140, pp. 771–8.
7.Editorial, ‘A Meeting Too Many’, The Lancet, 1998, Vol. 352, p. 1161.
8.James McCormick, ‘Death of the Personal Doctor’, The Lancet, 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 667–8.
Introduction: Ten Years On
REFERENCES
1.Office of Health Economics, Compendium of Health Statistics 20th Edition (Office of Health Economics, 2010).
2.H. Moses, E. R. Dorsey, D. H. M. Matheson et al., ‘Financial Anatomy of Biomedical Research’ JAMA, 2005, Vol. 295, pp. 1333–42.
3.Elias Derhouni, ‘NIH in the Post-Doubling Era: Realities and Strategies’, Science, 2006, Vol. 314, pp. 1088–91.
4.Carroll Estes and Elizabeth Binney, ‘The Biomedicalisation of Ageing: Dangers and Dilemmas’, Gerontologist, 1989, Vol. 29, pp. 587–96.
1: Doing More
REFERENCES
1.Quoted in Sharon Kaufman, Janet K. Shim and Anne Ross, ‘Revisiting the Biomedicalisation of Ageing: Clinical Trends and Ethical Challenges’, Gerontologist, 2004, Vol. 44, pp. 731–38.
2.Charles Dotter and Melvin Judkins, ‘Transluminal Treatment of Arteriosclerotic Obstruction’, Circulation, 1964, Vol. 30, pp. 654–70.
3.Steven Friedman, ‘Charles Dotter, Interventional Radiologist’, Radiology, 1989, Vol. 172, pp. 921–24.
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