Grissom’s explanation for the spontaneous detonation of the escape hatch fell on deaf ears among many NASA officials. In subsequent reconstructions of the sinking capsule fiasco, engineers were unable to open the hatch without human intervention, leading many to believe that Grissom had depressed the detonator plunger, either accidently or in a purposeful panic.
On August 6, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut German Titov began a 24-hour space flight, orbiting Earth 17 times. The cosmonaut tested the Vostok 2 spacecraft’s manual altitude control system, and became the first person to photograph Earth from space. Titov also consumed a full meal consisting of bread, liver pate, and peas, while drinking black currant juice. Though not made public by the secretive Russians, Titov suffered severe motion sickness, which partially lessened after he slept through five orbits. Like Yuri Gagarin before him, a heroic Titov was promoted from captain to major.
With two suborbital flights under their belt, NASA was prepared to send a spacecraft into orbit. On September 13, 1961, an MA-4 Atlas rocket launched a dummy astronaut into space. The spacecraft orbited the Earth twice, before landing in the Atlantic Ocean target zone, three hours after lift-off.
A second chimpanzee, Enos, was launched into space on November 29th of that same year. Enos’ flight lasted for three hours, as he orbited the Earth twice and endured 181 minutes of weightlessness. Like his suborbital counterpart, Ham, Enos was trained to perform his cockpit duties based upon operant conditioning. If the chimp pulled the correct levers, he was rewarded with water and banana-flavored pellets. However, if he failed to perform the assigned tasks correctly, painful electric shocks were delivered to the soles of his feet. During the orbital flight, a capsule malfunction caused the chimp to be negatively reinforced with electric shocks, regardless of which lever he pulled. By the time rescue crews reached the capsule in the Pacific Ocean, a terrified and angry Enos had painfully ripped out his still-inflated urinary catheter and torn off his biomedical sensory electrodes. Not surprisingly, the enraged chimpanzee tried to bite his Navy rescuers. Adding insult to injury, during the post-flight press conference, the chimp ripped off his diaper and began fondling himself in front of reporters and television cameras, earning the unfortunate moniker, Enos the Penis.
After 10 postponements related to unfavorable weather conditions and equipment malfunctions, John Glenn undertook America’s first orbital space flight on February 20, 1962. The more powerful Atlas rocket was used for the first time to launch the Mercury capsule into space. Constructed by two California-based companies, General Dynamics and Rocketdyne, the rocket was capable of generating 360,000 pounds of thrust (compared to the Redstone’s 76,000 pounds).
The task of placing an astronaut into orbit and bringing him home safely was a riskier proposition than the first two Mercury missions. In the event of tragedy, President Kennedy had already prepared a formal statement: “To Mrs. Glenn and members of the Glenn family go my deepest sympathy. It was my pleasure to have known John Glenn. This nation and the entire world share his loss with the Glenn family. Space scientists will revere his pioneering spirit forever.”
At 9:47 a.m., after a delay of 2 hours and 17 minutes, Friendship 7 lifted off the Cape Canaveral launch pad; the momentous event was witnessed by more than 40 million television viewers. NASA had established communication stations around the world, such that Glenn could maintain regular radio contact with Earth. Moving west to east, ground stations were located at Cape Canaveral, Bermuda, the Canary Islands, Nigeria, Zanzibar, a Navy vessel in the Indian Ocean, Australia, Canton Island, Hawaii, the California coast, the White Sands Proving Ground, Mexico, Corpus Christi, and Eglin Air Force Base (in the Florida panhandle). Manning the global tracking stations was a massive undertaking, involving some 19,000 individuals.
Over the course of 4 hours and 56 seconds, travelling at a velocity of 25,730 feet per second, Glenn completed 3 full orbits. At this incredible speed, the astronaut witnessed multiple transitions from day to night, and found that each space day lasted only 45 minutes. While in space, Glenn consumed parts of 2 separate meals, proving that digestive and metabolic processes were functional in a weightless environment. During the first orbit, the spacecraft’s altitude control system malfunctioned, causing the capsule to drift off course. Shifting to manual control, Glenn was able to correct the errant flight path.
A startling reminder of the dangers associated with space travel arose prior to the conclusion of Glenn’s first full orbit. Friendship 7’s alarm system indicated that the spacecraft’s ablative heat shield and compressed landing pack were not engaged in the locked position. If the shield did not remain in place, the capsule would burn up during the re-entry phase. NASA flight controllers did not fully inform Glenn of the seriousness of the situation, an unforgivable sin in the eyes of an experienced pilot. Instead, ground control instructed Glenn not to jettison the retrorockets used to position the spacecraft at the correct angle of re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere, with hopes that the metal straps anchoring the rocket pack would help hold the heat shield in place. During the fiery re-entry process, when friction generated by the high temperatures blocked radio transmission from the astronaut to ground control, NASA officials kept their fingers crossed, hoping the heat shield would remain in place. After several anxious minutes, Glenn’s voice was heard over the radio, confirming a safe re-entry. While the retrorockets and their supporting straps had burned up, the ablative heat shield remained in place and protected the capsule during re-entry. A furious Glenn, backed by his fellow astronauts, insisted that NASA keep crewmembers fully informed about equipment malfunctions during future missions.
John Glenn returned to Earth an even bigger hero than Alan Shepard. When Glenn visited Washington D.C., 250,000 people lined Pennsylvania Avenue to watch him pass. After being honored at the White House, Glenn addressed a joint session of Congress. The Friendship 7 space capsule departed on a worldwide tour, publicizing America’s space exploration milestone.
The clean-cut, straight-laced, former Marine was the ideal ambassador for the American space program. Charismatic, with excellent communication skills, Glenn proved more valuable as a promoter than a pilot, and President Kennedy soon ordered him removed from the flight roster. Historian, William E. Burrows, perhaps summed it up best: “John Glenn came out of Friendship 7’s inferno as the Lindbergh of his time.”
Over the course of the next 15 months, three additional Mercury spacecraft were launched into space, and the duration of the orbital flights progressively increased. Deke Slayton had been next on the flight list, but a cardiac arrhythmia (atrial fibrillation) took him out of the rotation. Slayton, bitterly disappointed by his medical disqualification, was rewarded with the creation of a new position, Coordinator of Astronaut Activities, which kept him closely involved with future space flights.
On May 24, 1962, Scott Carpenter was launched into orbit aboard Aurora 7. Carpenter circled the Earth three times and conducted experiments involving liquids in a weightless environment. A malfunction of the automatic flight control system forced Carpenter to pilot the spacecraft. While at the helm, Carpenter burned fuel much faster than anticipated, and at the time of re-entry, failed to fire the retrorockets at the appropriate time, resulting in splash down 250 miles outside the target zone. Anxious NASA officials and television watchers waited for an hour, until Navy rescuers located the space capsule. Carpenter was eventually found floating in a life raft, tethered to Aurora 7, the latter of which was on the verge of sinking.
During his post-flight press conference, Carpenter made the mistake of embarrassing NASA by calling attention to the lengthy period of time it took rescuers to locate and recover the capsule: “I didn’t know where I was, and they didn’t either.” NASA officials were already frustrated that Carpenter had wasted fuel and misjudged re-entry, leading Launch Control Coordinator Christopher Craft to grouse: “That son of a bitch will never fly for me again!” Craft’s angry declaration proved prescient; Carpenter never again flew in space.
Five months later, Sigma 7 was launched into orbit. Wally Schirra executed 6 full orbits, twice as many as Scott Carpenter, yet consumed only half as much fuel as his predecessor. Schirra also splashed down right on target, just 4.5 miles from the rescue aircraft carrier—NASA officials described it as a “textbook flight.”
On May 15, 1963, Faith 7, piloted by Gordon Cooper, was launched into orbit. Cooper established a new record for space travel—22 orbits, over the course of 34 hours and 22 minutes, while traveling 546,167 miles. He also became the first astronaut to fall asleep while in orbit. Faith 7 was equipped with a television camera, which transmitted the first live orbital shots to viewers below. When the spacecraft’s automatic control system malfunctioned, Cooper had to use the control stick to keep the ship steady, while manually firing the retrorockets to enable re-entry. Cooper’s cool demeanor and piloting skills allowed him to avert disaster.
As Project Mercury wound down, NASA was already planning for the next phase of space exploration. Accordingly, 9 new astronauts were recruited in 1962, followed by 14 more in 1963.
While the general public’s attention was riveted on Project Mercury, NASA’s highly successful unmanned space exploration program moved forward. Launched on August 7, 1959, Explorer 6 became the first spacecraft to photograph Earth from orbit. Pioneer 5, launched on March 11, 1960, entered into orbit around the Sun, between Earth and Venus, and became the first spacecraft to map magnetic fields between the two planets.
Launched April 1, 1960, Tiros I, the world’s first weather satellite, was equipped with infrared observation technology and television cameras. That same month, the first global navigation satellite, Transit 1B, was launched into orbit, allowing American ships at sea to calculate their positions with unprecedented precision. Four and a half months later, the world’s first experimental communications satellite, Echo I, began circling the Earth. Referred to as a passive communications satellite, Echo I functioned as a reflector, but not a transmitter; signals could only be sent to it, and “bounced back” to Earth.
With its successful unmanned space flight program and the introduction of innovative technology, America was becoming more than competitive in the Space Race. By October of 1960, the U.S. had successfully launched 26 satellites into orbit. Moreover, NASA’s success rate had dramatically improved; in 1958, all 4 launches failed, 9 of 14 were successful in 1960, and 12 of 17 made it into orbit in 1961.
Space intelligence-gathering took on a new meaning in the early 1960s, when CIA operatives “kidnapped” a Soviet Luna probe, while the spacecraft was being displayed at a trade fair in Mexico. The American spies kept the probe overnight, climbing inside the vehicle, thoroughly photographing it, and copying down serial numbers from its key components.
During this same era, American spy satellites were regularly photographing Soviet military installations. Spy film capsules were shot down from the satellites and retrieved in mid-air by Air Force planes using hooking devices to snag the downward drifting photo packages by their parachutes.
As the decade marched forward, America continued to refine its satellite technology. Telstar I, designed by Bell Labs and AT&T, was launched into orbit on July 10, 1962. Powered by solar cells, the satellite transmitted live television broadcasts between the United States and Europe. Telstar I gave birth to even more sophisticated communications satellites—Telstar II, Relay, and Syncom. In July of 1963, Syncom II was place in geostationary orbit, such that signals could be bounced back and forth from Earth, giving rise to the now familiar phrase: “Live by satellite.”
The implementation of geostationary orbits enhanced satellite communications. In a geostationary configuration, a satellite assumes a circular orbit, directly above the Equator, and follows Earth’s natural rotation. With an orbital period equal to Earth’s rotational period, the satellite appears motionless at a fixed point in the sky (a stationary footprint). Today, all communications and weather satellites are placed in geostationary orbits, allowing Earth-based antennae to remain permanently pointed to the same position in the sky.
With advancements in rocket propulsion, guidance, and navigation technology, the dream of exploring outer space became a reality. On August 27, 1962, NASA launched Mariner 2, which became the first probe to fly directly to another planet (Venus).
NASA did, however, struggle with its early unmanned lunar exploration spacecraft. On April 23, 1962, Ranger 4 blasted into space, and became the first American spacecraft to reach the Moon’s surface; the first and second Ranger probes had been stranded in Earth’s orbit, when their upper-stage engines failed, and Ranger 3’s upper-stage engine fired too long, causing the probe to miss the Moon by some 20,000 miles. Unfortunately, Ranger 4 lost power after crashing on the lunar surface, and was unable to transmit pictures and other much-needed data to Earth.
In September of 1962, President John F. Kennedy delivered a memorable address at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas. Kennedy reiterated America’s goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the decade: “Some have asked, why go to the Moon? One may as well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why sail the widest ocean?”
While many believed JFK’s goals were unrealistic, the man responsible for designing the space launch rockets never lost faith. Wernher von Braun, who was firmly ensconced as Director of the George C. Marshall Spaceflight Center at Redstone Arsenal, was certain man would eventually reach the Moon.
Von Braun was actively focused on developing the Saturn V rocket—the launch vehicle that would send astronauts to the Moon. Well before people outside of the state of Massachusetts were familiar with John F. Kennedy, von Braun’s long range plans were already etched in stone. In early May of 1950, the Huntsville Times had informed its readers: DR. VON BRAUN SAYS ROCKET FLIGHTS POSSIBLE TO MOON.
In order for men to land on the Moon, two separate but interrelated spacecraft would have to be developed—a vehicle to travel to the Moon and back, and a second one to land on the lunar surface. Astronauts would have to master rendezvous and docking maneuvers, as well as learn to pilot both spacecraft. With these ambitious goals in mind, Project Gemini was formally announced in December of 1961.
Originally called Mercury Mark II, the Gemini spacecraft, manufactured by McDonnell Aircraft, was considerably larger than its predecessor, and consisted of three distinct components—a cockpit capsule for the astronauts; an equipment module containing the electrical power system, propellant tanks, communication/ instrumentation equipment, and drinking water; and the engine compartment.
The symbolism associated with the latest NASA project was readily apparent. In Greek mythology, Castor and Pollux were the Gemini twins, and one of twelve Zodiac constellations controlled by Mercury. Like their namesakes, Gemini spacecraft would accommodate two-man crews and follow in the footsteps of Mercury.
In preparation for the Gemini flights and future space exploration, NASA’s Manned Spacecraft Center relocated from Langley Field, Virginia to Houston, Texas, giving birth to Mission Control. While all space launches would continue to originate from Cape Canaveral, Mission Control would now serve as the permanent center for flight operations.
Texas just so happened to be the home state of one of the space program’s biggest supporters—Vice President Lyndon Johnson. As usual, politics followed money, only in grander fashion in the Lone Star State. Humble Oil donated a large land parcel to Rice University, while retaining rights to the underground oil and gas reserves. In turn, the university donated 1,000 acres to NASA and sold the space agency an additional 650 acres at $1,000.00 per acre.
With the end of the decade in sight, the space program’s astronauts, scientists, engineers, and technicians had their work cut out for them. NASA Flight Director Gene Kranz acknowledged the momentous challenge: “We needed to race to our adolescence, and grow up fast.” According to Kranz, the Soviet Union’s stunning successes served as a prime motivator: “We were tired of being second.”
Project Gemini would serve as an
important bridge between Mercury and Apollo. Before man could travel to the Moon, a number of “firsts” would have to be undertaken, which defined the Gemini mission: mastery of steering, maneuvering, docking, and undocking (in preparation for employment of the Apollo space capsule and lunar excursion vehicle); measurement of the effects of extended periods of weightlessness on the astronauts’ health (lunar missions were estimated to last more than a week, and NASA flight surgeons still worried about the effects of zero gravity—some feared prolonged exposure to weightlessness might be fatal); space walks to test the effectiveness of the astronauts’ protective spacesuits (in preparation for walking on the Moon); development and utilization of fuel cells, rather than batteries, to generate electricity and produce water (a necessity for the extended flights to the Moon); testing the maneuverability of the heavier, two-man spacecraft (the Apollo missions would be expanded to three-man crews, with an even larger spacecraft); testing the onboard computer navigation and flight systems (the computer systems for Mercury had been housed at the flight control center rather than inside the spacecraft); and testing the more powerful Titan II rocket that would be used to launch the spacecraft into orbit.
Before the first Gemini launch, the Soviet Union’s space program continued to make headlines, which caused many Americans to mistakenly believe their country was falling further behind in the Space Race. On June 16, 1963, Cosmonaut, Valentina V. Tereshkova, became the first female to fly in space. Two days earlier, another cosmonaut, Valeri Bykovsky, had been launched into space, awaiting Tereshkova’s flight. Once both Soviet spacecraft were in orbit together, the cosmonauts maneuvered to within 11 miles of one another—an important step toward the ultimate goal of rendezvous and docking.
In October of 1964, three Soviet cosmonauts were launched in orbit aboard a Voskhad 1 spacecraft. To accommodate the first three-man space crew, the Soviets were forced to strip out all but the essential electrical equipment inside a Vostok capsule. Even then, inside the confined quarters of the spacecraft, the cosmonauts could not wear their bulky pressurized space suits, and remained in orbit for only 24 hours.
The Eagle Has Landed: The Story of Apollo 11 Page 6