by Bill Fawcett
American involvement in Vietnam predated President Johnson by two administrations, with both Eisenhower and Kennedy recognizing the growing communist presence in Southeast Asia. The “Domino Theory” suggested that each country gained by the Communist bloc, whether through revolution or invasion, increased the chances of a neighboring country falling to the same Red Menace. In the case of Southeast Asia, South Vietnam was regarded as a cornerstone in the containment effort, protecting Cambodia, Laos, and a key American ally, Thailand, from falling to communist forces.
Because of the containment policy, Vietnam was a war Johnson felt needed to be fought. But for a host of other reasons, it was a war he never made a solid commitment toward winning. In much the same way that Truman had tried to maintain the Korean conflict as a limited war, Johnson and his advisers banned American forces from striking enemy targets outside the borders of the embattled country. Yet Vietnam was a very different kind of war.
Johnson was not unwilling to engage the communists, and in fact considered it his duty to stand firm in the face of communist aggression. On August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was patrolling off the coast of North Vietnam, in the Gulf of Tonkin. At the same time, commandos of the ARVN landed on a North Vietnamese island and blew up a radio installation. North Vietnamese patrol boats sortied and launched a torpedo attack against the Maddox; no damage or injuries resulted and the Maddox withdrew. Two days later, another destroyer, the Turner Joy, was patrolling the same area. In a confusing night of sonar and radar images and quirky weather patterns, the Turner Joy engaged in a prolonged firefight with targets that were only hazily perceived, but her crew reported numerous torpedo attacks evaded, and considerable ordnance expanded. Her captain, as well as U.S. Navy pilots who had flown above the area, expressed doubts that there had been any enemy ships in the area. Even the president, a few days later, is reported to have said that our sailors “may have been shooting at flying fish.”
Nevertheless, Johnson used the incident to push the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution through Congress, authorizing him to engage American forces in direct combat with any enemy forces in the area, without requiring a declaration of war. The measure passed almost unanimously, although many in Congress and the Senate expressed reservations. (The only two “no” votes came from senators who believed the resolution was unconstitutional.) Johnson immediately authorized the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Naval air forces to commence a series of limited attacks against coastal targets in North Vietnam, and attempted to interdict the jungle-sheltered supply route used by North Vietnam to support the Viet Cong guerrillas in the South. This route, the Ho Chi Minh trail, was named after the leader of North Vietnam, and in most places was virtually undetectable from the air.
Between the end of 1964 and most of 1965, the ARVN forces were ineffective and continued to grow weaker because of desertion and poor morale. The last effective president of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, had been assassinated three weeks before Kennedy (in a coup backed by American diplomats and the CIA) and for several years the country would veer from one military junta to the next with no effective and stable leadership. Faced with internal disorder and increasing pressure from the communist forces, it became clear that South Vietnam could not stand on its own.
In May of 1965, thirty-five hundred Marines arrived in South Vietnam with the mission of protecting American air bases. By the end of the year, the number of American ground troops, including the U.S. Army and Marine corps, had swollen to two hundred thousand. General William Westmoreland, American commander in the country, increasingly advocated using these troops in an offensive war. He was confident that he could defeat the enemy, probably in a period of about eighteen months; throughout the next few years he would increasingly call for additional commitment of American troops.
Johnson authorized increasing troop deployments, and went along with Westmoreland’s switch to the offensive, but he didn’t admit the change in policy to the country or the Congress. At the same time, he was unwilling to risk negative world opinion with an all-out bombing campaign, so targets were strictly limited. Often pilots were forced to ditch their weapons or land fully-armed aircraft because no target had been authorized—or authorization had been cancelled—while the plane was in the air. These restraints crippled the effectiveness of the U.S. military’s greatest advantage, it’s almost-uncontested mastery of the air.
On the ground, Westmoreland was committed to the concept of large scale search-and-destroy operations, designed to pin down and wipe out enemy concentrations of force. His primary measure of success was the “body count”—the listing of the number of enemy casualties, which Westmoreland took as evidence of the toll the war was taking on the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese.
The enemy, however, proved very hard to pin down, and much preferred operating in small units. When near the borders of Cambodia or Laos, the enemy forces often withdrew into these neighboring countries, which remained as safe havens for their bases because of orders from Washington. The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces were often able to pick the ground for their battles, and frequently vanished into the jungle rather than engage in a battle that was not to their advantage.
At the same time as he was heavily engaging the enemy, Westmoreland was neglecting an important strategy: he virtually cut off supply and replenishment to his allies in the ARVN. The South Vietnamese soldiers were still using World War II–era carbines while the enemy was increasingly armed with the lethal AK-47s, and the American troops carried the modern M-16. By neglecting the training and equipping of the ARVN, Westmoreland placed the entire burden of success or failure on the shoulders of the American soldiers and Marines.
Westmoreland’s prediction of an eighteen-month war proved unrealistic as operations continued through 1967. Protests at home grew increasingly violent and explosive as public opinion continued to turn against the war. Whether or not he understood the situation on the ground, Westmoreland reported to Congress in late 1967 that “we have reached the point where the end begins to come into view.” Meanwhile, protestors outside the White House chanted “Hey, hey, LBJ. How many kids did you kill today?”
Then, in January 1968, the VC and NVA launched the Tet Offensive, a series of attacks that erupted across the entire country of South Vietnam. Battles raged in countless towns and villages; several major cities, including Saigon and Hue, were scenes of savage fighting. Even though the Americans and South Vietnamese defeated every significant attack, inflicting brutally high losses on the communist forces, the Tet Offensive became a major strategic victory for the attackers. Public opinion in the United States swung heavily against the war, as it became increasingly obvious that American strategy was costing the country the lives of very many soldiers with very little to show for that sacrifice.
Shocked and shaken by the display of enemy determination, Lyndon Johnson lost his spirit for waging the war or for running the country. He called a unilateral halt to the bombing of North Vietnam and declared that he would not run for reelection.
But in the jungles of Vietnam, American soldiers and Marines would continue to die for five more years.
18
FIRST LADY FOLLIES
“And now, dear sister, I must leave this house or the retreating army will make me a prisoner in it by filling up the road I am directed to take.”
Dolley Madison
SECOND CHOICE
George Washington was not Martha’s first husband. Before she married George, she had been married to a Virginia landowner named Daniel Custis. In the era of colonial America, a widow remarrying was quite common. The painful fact was that in those times there were a lot of ways to die and people often did.
Three of the first four U.S. presidents were married to widows. These were Washington, Jefferson, and Madison.
FATHER-IN-LAW
Martha’s first father-in-law was a difficult person and would likely today be considered deranged. She blamed the early death of her first husband, Daniel, on his f
ather’s virulent nature and abuse. When, as a widow, Martha inherited her father-in-law’s property, she quickly sold just about every item. Only one thing was kept back. This was the man’s prized collection of hand-blown wineglasses. The collection was extremely valuable and had been her father-in-law’s most prized possession, but Martha personally smashed every glass.
AYE, AYE MA’AM
No longer willing to bear the separation from her husband, who was serving as minister to France for the United States, Abigail and her daughter, Nabby, made the risky trip across the Atlantic to join him. The story here is in the journey. The weather turned bad almost immediately and Abigail was, at first, continuously seasick. The ship was thrown about so roughly that a cow they had brought along was injured and had to be thrown overboard. Their suffering was made worse by the ship’s cargo, potash and whale oil. Both slopped up from the hold and their nauseating odor permeated the ship. The rancid odor meant that the two women could not sleep even with a closed door.
The weather calmed and Abigail was back to herself. She began with the ship’s cook, since she could eat again. He was unskilled and produced barely palatable food. Abigail not only took a hand in preparing better food, but taught the cook how to continue to do so. She then began to take an interest in how the ship was run. Fairly soon, she was advising nearly everyone. Finally she could no longer stand the mess and odor caused by the slopped cargo. She, likely recruiting assistance as she could, scrubbed the ship from stem to stern. By the end of the voyage, Abigail Adams was the darling of the crew and the captain was convinced she was after his job.
AH, BACH
What was said to have attracted Martha Jefferson to her future husband Thomas Jefferson was not just his prestige, his wealth, or his intellect, but his talent for playing the violin. The couple both shared a deep interest in music. After their marriage, Martha was gifted with a piano and lessons. Soon the couple would entertain their guests with long duets that mostly expressed their love for each other.
FIRST LADY, FIRST LADY
Because President Jefferson and Vice President Burr had both lost their wives before entering office, the wife of James Madison, the secretary of state, was effectively the First Lady during the Jefferson Presidency, as well as when her husband succeeded to office. But it wasn’t only the period when Dolley Madison held this position that caused her to be the model First Lady that even today we judge them against. What really made the difference was Dolley’s sense of style. She was elegant in a way that you have to go on to Jackie Kennedy to match. Except during the War of 1812, when she only “bought American,” Dolley was the nation’s fashion leader, importing the latest European styles. Her turban collection, many jeweled, was legendary and started a fashion trend that swept the nation’s upper classes. When you add her open demeanor, kind heart, skill as an organizer, and a sense of the equality of all Americans, you can see why she was the model of those who followed. She also was very much a woman, creating a minor scandal when she adopted the new French-style gowns which featured lots of cleavage.
REQUIRED FLAW
Everyone has a secret flaw. Like the chef who cannot resist White Castle burgers (you know, sliders), Dolley Madison had one really disgusting personal habit. Again, this was a practice that was most trendy in Europe and actually benefited American growers. Dolley took snuff and did so frequently. Now this was a time when most women would never have risked such a habit. The reason for this is the effect that snuff had on the sinuses. The First Lady almost always carried two handkerchiefs. One was a dainty lace one that she used before using any snuff. The second was, by necessity, a much thicker and sturdier cloth that was needed to deal with the large amounts of mucous using snuff created.
HELLO, DOLLEY
It was the stated intention of Admiral Cockburn in attacking Washington to capture not James Madison, but the First Lady, Dolley Madison. The capture of the popular First Lady would have been much more of a propaganda victory than the capture of her husband. He also came close to succeeding. Dolley at first refused to flee, watching the disastrous rout of the Maryland Militia from the roof of the executive mansion. Only when she received a note from James Monroe asking her to take what she could save, did Dolley leave, only a few hours ahead of the British. The uneaten meal she had laid out for her husband was still on the table when the British entered the mansion. (They ate it before setting the place on fire.) One of the few items saved by Dolley Madison when the White House was burned was a set of heavy, red curtains. In a small way these curtains helped Dolley to get a small bit of revenge. As in the famous scene from Gone with the Wind, the First Lady had an elegant gown made from the cloth of the curtains she saved. She then made a point of wearing this gown at victory celebrations.
FAINT, BUT NOT OF HEART
First Lady Elizabeth Monroe was prone to an illness not yet diagnosed, but possibly some form of epilepsy. She would have small fits or faint without warning. One time she had an attack while sitting near a lit fireplace and was seriously burned.
REVOLTING EVENT
Before he was president, James Monroe represented the United States in France. This was a rather challenging job, since he was there at the start of the French Revolution. Americans were well-regarded—our ideas of freedom and individual rights inspired much of the new revolutionary philosophy. The situation presented an even greater challenge to his normally retiring and often timid wife, Elizabeth. But there was one time when she challenged the Directorate and won. The wife of the Marquis de Lafayette had been imprisoned. Lafayette himself was at this time being held prisoner in Austria, likely as a subversive, and his wife was swept up with the nobility and stood in serious danger of meeting the guillotine. James Monroe had actually served under Lafayette, and knew the marquis and his wife well. Elizabeth Monroe went to the prison where the wife of the American Revolutionary War hero was being held and was brought to her cell. She learned that the poor woman was to be executed the next day. But as she left, Elizabeth Monroe announced to the jailers that she would be back for another conversation the next day and expected the marquise to be there for her to speak to. Rather than offend the wife of the American minister, the execution was postponed indefinitely. In the fanatic days of the French Revolution, this was actually a fairly risky action. Just being seen with or consorting with the nobility could get you imprisoned or executed. But in this case, the highly emotional meeting had its desired effect. A few days later Madame de Lafayette was released and allowed to join her husband in Austria. The couple survived the troubles and eventually were able to visit President Monroe and his First Lady in Washington.
BABY SECRET SERVICE
While visiting New York City in 1807, the baby of Louisa and future president John Quincy Adams was snatched from his mother’s arms. A maid chased the man, but was unable to catch him. She did see which house he fled into. When confronted at the door by the two women he returned the baby with a lame excuse that he just wanted to show it to his wife.
WORSE THAN FLYING TODAY
In 1814, Louisa Adams was told by her husband to break down their house in Russia and come join him at his new position in Paris. At first, since she hated Russia, this pleased Louisa. The hassles of selling off or packing all their possessions soon took the edge off her joy. The real problem was in the journey from St. Petersburg to Paris. It started in February and the temperature dropped to a recorded 54 below zero (Fahrenheit). Then when she reach Berlin word came that Napoleon had landed and was reforming the French Empire. It was a dangerous time to travel, and no escorts were available. With only a teenage German servant, Louisa and her young son made their way across a chaotic Germany and an even worse France. On occasion, she used her son’s toy sword to bluff potential attackers and once represented herself as being one of Napoleon’s sisters to French foragers, who were more like thieves than soldiers. The trip took six weeks and it made the future First Lady a phenomenon in Paris.
MATTER OF HONOR
If Andrew Jackson were still alive, I would not be writing about this topic. He was said to be so touchy about this particular problem that he kept two loaded dueling pistols for the expressed purpose of challenging anyone who brought it up. The subject is his marriage, well, actually, two marriages to wife Rachel. Andrew Jackson was devotedly in love with his wife. She has been married before to a most abusive man who all his life went out of his way to make things hard for her, even after they were divorced. Fleeing Virginia after having been beaten by her first husband, Rachel Robards met Andrew Jackson. They fell deeply and permanently in love. Fearing to return to Virginia, the couple carefully waited as Louis Robards filed for divorce there and for the required period that followed to make the divorce final. They then got married, but did not live happily ever after. Two years later, for reasons not known, Louis Robards filed a second divorce proceeding in Tennessee. Fearing that there might be a problem with their first marriage, the couple were married again. Today we would think of this as a love story, but in that time, politics were just as nasty and personal as modern mud-slinging elections. When Jackson, a war hero, ran for president, his opponents made much of his moral lapse using the second marriage as proof the couple had been living in sin. Jackson won by a large margin, but did not take this well and it was part of the reason behind one of the most politically rancorous periods.
LOVES LABOR LOST
Despite overcoming the controversy of their two marriage ceremonies, Rachel Jackson never actually lived in the White House. She saw Andrew Jackson elected, but died before his inauguration. Blaming her death partly on the highly personal attacks of his opponents, Jackson never forgave them.
WHO?
Very little in known about First Lady Hannah Van Buren. Not only are there few records, but she is not mentioned at all in her husband’s autobiography. That’s right, Martin Van Buren wrote an entire book about his life and presidency, but never once mentioned his wife in it.