The German Army forced the nation’s capitulation, but the Allies failed to enter Germany proper. Later, the myth arose that the German Army was “stabbed in the back” by enemies at home rather than suffering defeat in the field. This myth ballooned to a widespread belief and helped Adolph Hitler rise to power in Germany. Hitler, the man who started World War II, fought bravely in the Great War winning the Iron Cross—very hard for an enlisted man in the Kaiser’s army. His hatred of the French, his condemnation of Germany’s defeat, and the armistice terms of Versailles drove him to start a war to salvage German honor. Some Allied generals, Pershing among them, predicted that unless the Allies marched into Berlin the Germans would not admit defeat and the war would renew itself after a few years. The war did renew itself after a few years, and the new war proved worse than the old; however, the origins of WWII go far beyond an Allied failure to march on Berlin. While the myth dovetailed into post war evils, far greater issues pivoted on an international economic collapse, German economic problems, poor leadership in the West, and poor leadership in Germany that allowed Adolf Hitler to worm his way into power.
Aftermath
(And you thought the war was bad . . .)
The Germans cringed when they received the peace terms, but the Allies ripped at their throat. Germany must sign or be utterly destroyed. Germany was not allowed to enter the peace conference until told, as only the winning nations were allowed to attend. There were no negotiations. Over German protest, especially the clause saying Germany started the war (the War Guilt clause), the French and English battered Germany into signing the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The negotiations between the winning parties over the contents of the treaty were probably the most important in history. Many modern worldwide problems started with the Treaty of Versailles. World War II grew from this document, as well as numerous civil wars. World War I was a grave error for the West, but the Treaty of Versailles compounded and extended the error to future generations. The American Senate, to President Wilson’s dismay, decided against the treaty and the US later signed a separate peace treaty with Germany.
As the Kaiser fled and the German parliament sued for peace, Germany itself faced a left-wing revolution. Communist cells, established all over Europe by the USSR and competing socialists movements, now attempted to take full advantage of the upheaval to gain control of governments in Germany and other troubled European nations, such as the new nations forming from the crumbling Austria-Hungarian Empire. As the German government tottered the streets became scenes of chaos. The starving populace began rioting, and the police strained to maintain order. In the short term, at least a semblance of order paved over smoldering difficulties; however, the future shown none too brightly for Western Europe as the forces of radical change swept the continent. Germany became the Weimar Republic, a weak government struggling to survive after the Great War.
As the war concluded, a horrendous influenza pandemic swept the world in 1918 and 1919 killing about 50 to 100 million people. [183] The influenza exterminating the world probably came from the trenches of World War I, when a normal strain of flu moving through millions of men radically changed in the process. Then infected men took the flu back to their home nations where it became an invisible hurricane killing anyone susceptible. Humanity found no cure, and the killing storm simply exhausted itself as survivors were apparently immune to its effects. The pandemic killed far more people than the war itself.
The Great War’s victims were many. Millions were dead, and billions spent. The Ottoman Empire, destroyed; Austria-Hungary, dismembered; Germany’s overseas colonies, and national territory stripped; German honor, shattered; the French and British populace, decimated; the world’s economy, in torment. The great world of 1900, murdered. European wealth and society was destroyed by stupidity beyond imagination.
Versailles’ Treaty stripped Germany of its army and navy, forced the nation to admit responsibility for the war, and forced its citizens to pay thirty-two billion (in 1919 dollars, much more today) in repatriations to the Allies.[184] The United States refused to ratify the treaty. Woodrow Wilson, the American president negotiating the treaty, sold out everything for his concept of a new organization joining the leading nations of the world in a setting where diplomacy substituted for wars—the League of Nations. Wilson, an idealist, dreamed of the League forming the centerpiece of a world without war. However, the US Senate must ratify US treaties, and the Senate rejected the treaty and the League of Nations. The United States signed a separate peace with Germany, bitterly disappointing the Europeans. The world’s nations went ahead with the League, but America never joined, and the USSR (Russia renamed by the communists)[185] stayed away until 1934. As organized, the League possessed little ability to enforce any rules it might pass, and passing rules was nearly impossible because taking action required a unanimous vote. It became mostly a talking club, and when talking failed the League failed. The Concert of Europe depended on balance of power politics to maintain the peace, and that produced arms races and the Great War. The League would not rely on balance of power politics that it thought caused the great conflagration, and the ideal of a mutual defense against aggression failed to prevent a swift march to a new murderous conflict.
Economic calamity overtook Germany and Europe immediately after the war, with only England and the United States seeming to emerge from the firestorm with something like their old economies intact. An illusion, at best. England spent its national treasure on the war, and it borrowed heavily to sustain itself during the fighting. The German economy launched into hyperinflation where a thousand marks could not buy a loaf of bread. At one point, a million German marks equaled about one US dollar. The United States also spent deeply to enter the war and sustain the fight. Little did the “winning” nations recognize the world economic system sustained enormous strain, and even one misstep by the economic ministers could cause the international system to fail. In fact, several missteps came in the form of higher tariffs, tightening national money supplies, increasing taxation, and more government control over economies (socialism—which resulted in even higher taxes). The world economic system crumbled and the world’s worse depression hit—The Great Depression. With millions out of work; banks failing and taking people’s savings; industry shrinking; production falling; and international trade dying the government bureaucracies choked. Around the world finance ministers seemed unable to deal with the emergency, and the steps governments did take made the Depression worse. From 1929 to 1939, the Depression gripped the world, but the Depression hit hardest in the world’s most industrialized nation—the United States.[186]
In the United States, President Hoover, who took office in 1929, tried to keep wages high, and he approved of recent congressional moves to increase tariff rates substantially. Hoover adopted high government spending to solve the crisis, and he tried many economic moves never tried before. By keeping wages artificially high Hoover caused layoffs in major industries, keeping high tariffs shrank international trade, and high government spending created high taxes taking money away from consumers. President Roosevelt, elected into office in 1933,[187] also desired high wages, did nothing to reduce the towering tariffs, and his administration spent far more than Hoover’s. Roosevelt tried to raise the price of farm products and manufactured goods, he created extensive government works programs, and he raised taxes. This caused fewer goods to be available for purchase and took more money away from private enterprise inhibiting new hiring. Roosevelt’s “New Deal” programs did much more harm than good. Recovery from the Great Depression began only after World War II took men out of the workforce as soldiers, and started massive production to fight the war. In fact, some economists claim the recovery did not happen until the 1950s. (See our section on the Great Depression).
As the worldwide economic disaster started, dictators began taking over major nations in Europe and Asia. It seemed capitalism and democracy failed, as shown by the Great War and now the Great Depressio
n. Italy moved to Mussolini as its leader (a dictator) in 1922; Russia came under a brutal dictatorship by 1928 (Stalin); Germany elected Hitler (another dictator) as its leader in 1933, and in Spain Franco became dictator in 1934. The economic tragedy of the Great Depression, caused in large part by WWI, led to a political catastrophe where powerful modern nations fell to cold-blooded dictators. In this fashion, World War I led to World War II. The Great War had changed everything, and everything collapsed quickly.
Some Thoughts on the Great War and the Aftermath
The great problems of the First World War stemmed from the Treaty of Versailles, the enormous debt incurred fighting the war, the massive death toll, the social dislocation, damage to political and economic structures, and the humiliation of the German nation. At the conclusion of any war, especially a momentous war such as WWI, the winning nation(s) must strive to create a peace stabilizing the situation in a fashion that prevents another war. This is winning the peace. The Roman general Scipio Africanus understood the principle of winning the peace, and this was why he made a generous peace with Carthage. Scipio ended the very long and brutal Second Punic War where Hannibal spent sixteen years destroying Italy as well as butchering several Roman legions. Scipio had won a total victory, and burning Carthage to the ground posed no problem—as was later accomplished in the Third Punic War after inferior leaders in Rome destroyed Scipio’s diplomatic triumph. Scipio knew Carthage could become a trading partner and assist Rome in controlling Africa; thus, Scipio designed a peace to avoid further war and bring additional prosperity to Rome and its ancient enemy Carthage.
The drafters of the Versailles Treaty failed to follow Scipio’s example, creating a treaty calculated to crush and humiliate Germany. France intended to stop another war by being so harsh with Germany she could never threaten Europe again; however, by making the Versailles treaty so ruthless the leaders all but guaranteed the next war. The axiom is simple enough to understand: it is not wise to humiliate a great people.[188] By destroying Germany’s wealth through huge repatriations they guaranteed the world additional financial tribulations.[189] The great debt incurred by the warring nations hurt their economies and international trade, but no one saw that by harming Germany’s economy they wounded every economy worldwide. These problems, plus feeble financial decisions by key economic powers in Europe and America, resulted in an economic collapse of epic proportions.
Economically, the world was in a fairly good place in 1900 and the future seemed bright. Democracies or paternal monarchies ruled most of Europe and by extension most of the world. Industrialism brought benefits in new and better products at lower prices while workers earned higher wages. Science helped to advance industry bringing ever improving manufactured goods. (These thoughts are my opinions. Many historians disagree.)
Many observers see things another way. They view the pre-World War I era as one of oppression and imperialism. These people see a world filled with inequality and the desperation of people downtrodden by the Western World and its monopoly on modern weapons. Such spectators perceive the West dissipating wonderful cultures by imposing Western ideas and ideals upon an unwilling populace while using the oppressed people’s natural resources and labor to further enrich super wealthy imperialist capitalists. Imperialism is still a pejorative term today. In fact, imperialism brought a modern way of life to countless people, including medical care, sanitation, increased crop production, increased equality for many (women for example), education, improving economies, and other unqualified enhancements to areas in India, Indochina, China, Africa, and others. It would have taken decades or centuries to achieve this progress without the “curse” of imperialism.
The Western World’s leadership failed miserably after 1900 in numerous clumsy and dim-witted ways. The major failures include: the failure to stop WWI; the failure to end the war once it started; the fundamental failures in drafting the Treaty of Versailles; the destruction of Austria-Hungary; the imposition of huge repatriations on Germany; the imposition of high tariffs that killed international trade; the utter failure to mitigate the Great Depression; the failure to stop Germany’s rearming; and the failure to stop WWII long before it began. The cause of each failure: poor decisions by governments and military leaders. Any of the above occurrences cried out for avoidance. Utter, complete, and total leadership incompetence underpinned these events.
Let Us Learn
The lessons of the First World War are many and complex. For our daily lives we can learn to slow down when making significant decisions, avoid letting pride fog clear thinking about ultimate consequences, think out the “end game” of any significant decision before taking action, and, when involved in a losing situation, cut your losses by getting out immediately. You must also watch for desperate acts by weak people that can cause unusual disruptions and poor decisions.
Tally up what you have and learn how to keep it. One of the first rules of life is avoid destroying what you have in the search for more. Europe in 1914 enjoyed the fruits of hundreds of years of progress. Why they tossed it out is a multifaceted question; nevertheless, we must note the fact that it was thrown away for no reason beyond human pride and stupidity. In your life, keep track of your positives, and remember they entail more than money. Good health is an asset of invaluable worth; thus, keep it safe. Loyal friends are another asset with value beyond measure, learn how to nurture those relationships. A sense of humor holds the key to a happier life. Respect for others should be recognized, acknowledged, and encouraged. Financial security must be planned and then carefully sought after. If financial security is finally achieved, protect and enjoy it.
Europe’s financial bounty in 1912 was beyond compare. Its social interactions were world renowned. The arts, theater, literature, painting, engineering, philosophy, and so much more were at their zenith prior to WWI. All this was destroyed by avarice, fear, distrust, and hatred among world leaders. Leaders must keep what their nations’ have intact and risk its loss only in the most dire circumstances. If Germany backed away from its commitment to Austria-Hungary, would it have been cowardly? Even if it was, would a bad reputation destroy her? Could Russia swallow its pride and allow Serbia to go under? After all, Serbia caused the death of the Archduke. Decisions made in anger or pride are poor decisions. Respond to situations with cold logic. Give yourself time to think before acting. Do not make decisions based on pride as Serbia, Austria, Russia, Germany, France, and perhaps even England did in starting the First World War. Remember what you have and ask if you want to lose it. Even WWI “winners” lost heavily. Keep in mind that winning can include keeping what you have intact. Destroying an enemy while destroying yourself is not winning at all.
Books and Resources on the Great War:
World War I, Keegan, 2000, Vintage Press. Must reading for understanding the great war.
The 11th Month, the 11th day, the 11th Hour, Persico, 2004, Random House. Lets the reader understand the horror of the war as few other books can. It tells the story of the last attacks by the Allies just hours before the war was to end.
World War I, SLA Marshall, is excellent reading.
The First World War, A Complete History, Martin Gilbert,1994, Owl Books.
The Great War (West Point Military History), by W. Griffits, Square One Publishers, 2003.
Cataclysm, The First World War As Political Tragedy, Stevenson, 2004, David, Basic Books, Perseus Book Group.
The Third Reich in Power, Evans, R., Penguin, 2005
Dreadnought, Massy, 1992, Ballantine Books
The World Crisis, 1911-1918, Churchill, 1931, Free Press
Fighting the Great War, a Global History, Neiberg, Michael, Harvard University Press, 2005.
Chapter 14
The Interwar Years 1919 to 1939
The “war to end all wars” was finally over in 1919 with the execution of the Treaty of Versailles. Europe was at peace. It would remain at peace for twenty years. It turned out the “war to end all wars” only set up Eur
ope for the next conflict which was even greater. World War II would officially start in 1939 with Germany, led by Adolph Hitler, invading Poland. Winston Churchill, Britain’s lord of the admiralty in WWI[190]and its Prime Minister in WWII, stated the Second World War should have been easy to prevent because the Western Democracies only needed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles to stop Germany from rearming. Along with economic errors and the Great Depression, these flawed decisions paved the way to World War II.
After the Great War of 1914 to 1918, with its attendant slaughter of at least 8 million soldiers, the people of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States tried fixing the world in an attempt to prevent a repeat of WWI. To that end, the governments of the great powers including Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States entered into arms limitations treaties to prevent arms races. Under these various agreements, the major world powers agreed to limit the tonnage of warships constructed, among other items. The League of Nations involved itself in keeping the peace through diplomatic efforts. Large peace organizations formed in America, England, and France to keep their countries out of wars. “Peace at any price” was their motto.
As it happened, the great powers would not have the money to engage in arms races. The Great Depression deprived the nations of funds needed to construct and field large armies or invest in extremely expensive weapons systems. No money equals no arms races. Peace seems to require the bankruptcy of all.
The Super Summary of World History Page 34