by Wilson, Bee
122 introduced at six months: Rapley and Murkett 2008; Rapley Weaning, http://www.rapleyweaning.com, accessed December 2014.
122 “things for themselves”: Rapley and Murkett 2008.
123 “decisions for him”: Gill Rapley, “Guidelines for Implementing a BabyLed Approach to the Introduction of Solid Foods,” June 2008, http://www.rapleyweaning.com/assets/blw_guidelines.pdf, accessed March 2016.
124 especially folate: Rowan and Harris 2012.
124 self-feed at six months: Wright et al. 2011.
125 “environment of school”: Gold 1993.
125 school canteen: Henry Dimbleby and John Vincent, “The School Food Plan,” http://www.schoolfoodplan.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/School_Food_Plan_2013.pdf, accessed March 2015.
125 calcium than school lunches: Farris et al. 2014.
126 lunchbox kids: “School Meals Help Fussy Children Try New Foods,” Children’s Food Trust, http://www.childrensfoodtrust.org.uk/news-and-events/news/school-meals-help-fussy-children-try-new-foods, accessed December 2014.
126 “portion size”: Itoh 2011.
Chapter 5: Brothers and Sisters
129 regardless of family income: Levin and Kirby 2012.
130 resemble their parents: Pliner and Pelchat 1986.
130 “moderately similar”: De Leeuw et al. 2007.
131 microbes in the gut: Smith et al. 2013b; see also “Debugging the Problem,” The Economist, February 2, 2013.
132 “any country in the world”: Rukmini Shrinivasan, “India Deadliest Place in the World for Girl Child,” Times of India, February 1, 2012, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-deadliest-place-in-world-for-girl-child/articleshow/11707102.cms, accessed December 2014.
132 103 males for every 100 females: Pande 2003.
132 “ensure her recovery”: Ibid.
132 how badly girls were fed: Ibid.
133 worthy of food: Ibid.
134 “fear, chance”: Weber 1981.
135 “set themselves with meals”: Ibid.
136 better educated, and better fed: Fong 2004.
136 “gets his cake”: Sandler 2013.
136 outlook to other children: Laybourn 1994.
136 immature sibling: Sandler 2013.
136 one or more siblings: Mentioned in Coates 1996.
136 “eat them”: Quoted in Pitkeathley and Emerson 1994.
138 part of the culture: Bourdieu 1986.
139 fruits and grapes: Brillat-Savarin 2009.
139 washing, and cooking: Bourdieu 1986.
139 bitterly, in 1994: Cathro and Hilliam 1994.
139 fulfilling family life: Conley and Glauber 2007.
140 girls were overweight: Blisset et al. 2006; but see also Hendy and Williams 2012 for the suggestion that parents do not always feed children of different sexes differently.
140 five-year period: Bauer et al. 2011.
140 can be measured: Hammons and Fiese 2011; Valdes et al. 2012.
141 encourage them to diet: Armstrong and Janicke 2012.
141 courteous families: Neumark-Sztainer et al. 2010.
141 overweight after five years: Bauer et al. 2011.
142 “flying saucer”: Slater 2004.
142 plum wine: “Holding Back Half the Nation,” The Economist, March 29, 2014.
142 whole extra meal: “How Many Calories Do Teenagers Need?” NHS Choices, UK, http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/how-many-calories-do-teenagers-need.aspx?CategoryID=51&SubCategoryID=165, accessed September 2014.
143 remembering them: Köster 2003.
143 crepes were womanly: Discussed in Ueland 2007.
144 differed according to gender: Wansink et al. 2003.
144 “appropriate”: For gender stereotypes of food in Japan, see Kimura et al. 2009, 2012.
144 masculine sort of food: Komatsu 2008.
144 too expensive for them: Martens 1997.
145 cognitive function: Eftekhari et al. 2009.
145 girls of the same age: Hercberg et al. 2001.
145 19.5 percent: Wei Xia et al. 2012.
145 followed by red meats: Sharon Perkins, “How Often Should You Eat Liver for Iron Intake?,” SFGate, http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/should-eat-liver-iron-intake-3367.html, accessed September 2014.
146 non-dieting meat-eaters: Nelson 1996, 362.
146 27.8 percent of the normal-weight girls: Eftekhari et al. 2009.
146 metabolizing fatty acids: Ibid.
147 attended in October 2013: Dr. Laura Stewart, “An Update on Obesity in the U.K. Young,” paper presented at Nutrition and Health Live conference, London, 2013.
148 “strong kid”: Jain et al. 2001.
148 more common in men than in women: Kuchler and Variyam 2003.
148 “biomedically obese”: Howard et al. 2008.
149 11 percent of the men: Rozin et al. 2003.
149 being weighed in public: Geier and Rozin 2008.
149 majority of postpubescent girls: Rodin et al. 1985.
149 do not manage it: Ueland 2007.
150 question of healthy eating: Cited in Groves 2002.
150 twice as many boys are obese: Sirikulchayanonta et al. 2010.
150 Syria or Libya: Musaiger et al. 2012.
150 fatty cooking water: John Platt, “In Kuwait, 88% Overweight and Stomach Stapling Becoming the Norm,” July 19, 2012, Mother Nature Network, http://www.mnn.com/food/healthy-eating/stories/in-kuwait-88-overweight-and-stomach-stapling-becoming-the-norm, accessed June 2015.
150 “compelled to stop too”: Roden 1968.
151 Kuwaiti boys: Musaiger at al. 2013.
151 men and women were equal: Botz-Bornstein and Abdullah-Khan 2014.
151 “size on the other”: Musaiger et al. 2013.
153 “relationship with chocolate”: Urbick 2011.
153 undermined by a recent study: Hormes and Rozin 2009.
154 Spain and the United States: Osman and Sobal 2006.
154 men feeling guilty: Kuijer and Boyce 2014.
Chapter 6: Hunger
155 not ready for learning: Share Our Strength, “Not Enough Kids Are Eating School Breakfast,” No Kid Hungry, http://www.nokidhungry.org/back-to-school/, accessed June 2015.
156 $9,175 as of 2014: “The Impact of Hunger,” Feeding America, http://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/impact-of-hunger/hunger-and-poverty/, accessed December 2014.
158 Florida in the 1960s: Ficker and Graves 1971, 44.
158 consequences are irreversible: “Hunger Statistics,” World Food Programme, http://www.wfp.org/hunger/stats, accessed December 2014.
158 insecurity, too: Cutts et al. 2011.
159 seventy pounds: Stevens Bryant 1913, 219.
160 quieted with feeding: Carlson 1993, 6.
160 sensation of hunger: Mattes 1990, 2010.
161 despite the gap: Mattes 2010.
161 weekday breakfast time: Ibid.
161 hunger and fullness: De Graaf et al. 2004.
161 small intestine: Ibid.
162 continuously monitored: Kovacs et al. 2002.
162 stomach is distended: Kissileff et al. 2003.
163 fall significantly: De Graaf et al. 2004.
163 never experience hunger: Benelam 2009.
163 reducing appetite: Ibid.
163 system increase: De Graaf et al. 2004.
163 grains of wheat: Carlson 1993.
164 University of Minnesota: Keys et al. 1950.
164 water and spices: Brožek 1953.
165 plenty to eat: Hoefling et al. 2009.
166 called Plumpy’Nut: Rice 2010.
166 field-tested it in 2001: “Peanut Butter That Saves Lives,” Future Food 2050, http://futurefood2050.com/peanut-butter-that-saves-lives/, acc
essed December 2014.
167 15 percent “wasted”: “Child and Mother Nutrition Survey of Bangladesh,” 2005, UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/Child_and_Mother_Nutrition_Survey.pdf, accessed April 2015.
167 “locally produced food”: Conversation with author, March 2014.
167 Plumpy’Nut among parents and children: Ali et al. 2013.
171 starting to feel full: Benelam 2009.
172 “filling-in foods”: Cathro and Hilliam 1994.
172 they are forbidden: Paltrow 2013.
172 “preloads” of various nutrients: See, for example, Yeomans and Chambers 2011.
172 hunger for several hours: Benelam 2009.
173 matter of nutrients: Rolls et al. 2000a.
173 consuming more: Ibid.
173 best ways is to eat soup: Mattes 2005.
173 more so than solid food: Prescott 2012.
174 “cognitive”: Mattes 2005.
175 from 1977 to 2006: Popkin and Duffey 2010.
175 gap between meals was standard: Lehmann 2003.
176 birds in the desert: Evers et al. 2013.
176 they are full: Rolls et al. 2000b.
176 three-year-olds and five-year-olds: Savage et al. 2012.
177 vegetables, and protein: Smith et al. 2013a.
177 “portion size”: Ibid.
177 tubes as they ate: Wansink et al. 2005.
178 active woman: Nestle 2007.
178 deciding how much to eat: Wansink 2011.
178 “I saw the food”: Ibid.
179 feel any fuller: Discussed in Benelam 2009.
179 good, varied diet: Rolls 1986.
180 internal fullness: Johnson 2180.
180 “regulated accurately”: Ibid.
181 “going to stop eating”: Ibid.
181 dieting alone: Tapper 2009.
181 accepting them: Alberts et al. 2010.
Chapter 7: Disorder
186 bread, and cereal: Thompson et al. 2014.
186 minuscule quantities: Correspondence between Claire Thompson and author, November 2014.
186 “am I, really?”: Thompson et al. 2014.
187 “on a diet”: Rozin et al. 2003.
188 general population: Zucker et al. 2007.
188 seven and a half years: Herzog et al. 1999.
189 “spit it out”: Delaney et al. 2014.
189 older children and adults: Bryant-Waugh et al. 2010.
193 oral dysfunction: Rommel et al. 2003.
193 35.5 percent . . . picky eaters: Kauer et al. 2015.
194 “ten times a week”: Conversation with author, May 2014.
194 “made her retch”: Nicholls et al. 2001.
194 vomiting on the plate: Conversation with author, May 2014.
195 otherwise unchanged: Bryant-Waugh 2013.
196 selective eating: Murray et al. 2013.
197 recommended steps: Seiverling et al. 2012.
198 “disruptive behavior”: Ibid.
198 “Plate A and Plate B”: Ibid.
199 boy with Asperger syndrome: Roth et al. 2010.
201 developing it is genetic: Arnold 2012.
202 compared to a control group: Baron-Cohen et al. 2013.
202 interacting with others: Zucker et al. 2007.
202 “food or weight”: Baron-Cohen et al. 2013.
202 recognizing pleasure: Discussed in Hay and Sachdev 2011.
202 “decision making”: Arnold 2012.
203 increasing in younger children: Nicholls et al. 2011.
204 “refused all food”: Marshall 1895.
205 10 percent: Nordin-Bates et al. 2011.
205 symptoms of depression: Ng et al. 2013.
206 individuals to anorexia: Klump 2013.
206 “you are in”: Conversation with author, May 2014.
207 older sufferers: Steinhausen 1991.
207 “lovely again”: Quoted in Lask and Bryant-Waugh 2013.
208 death in some cases: Steinhausen 2002.
208 “not to eat”: Lock and Le Grange 2004.
208 atmosphere of neurosis: Bruch 1978.
210 illness talking: Lock and Le Grange 2004.
210 refeeding meal might go: Brown 2009.
211 forties, and fifties: Wilson 2005.
212 later age than anorexia: Steinhausen 2009.
212 “one’s problems”: Rorty et al. 2006.
213 course of cognitive behavioral therapy: Bailer et al. 2004.
213 without any symptoms: Moore 2011.
213 feeling of certainty: Ibid.
214 we sit, and we eat: Gopnik 2011.
214 article on anorexia: Zucker et al. 2007.
Chapter 8: Change
219 songs sung to noodles: Kushner 2012.
220 women in Egypt: Ng et al. 2014.
220 maximum waistline: Onishi 2008.
220 envied the world over: Kushner 2012.
221 late twentieth century: Ibid.
221 “not very good”: “Slurp! Revealing the History of Ramen,” talk by Barak Kushner to the Guild of Food Writers, London, July 18, 2013.
222 late as the 1920s: Collingham 2011.
224 consumption of milk: Kushner 2012.
225 due to starvation: Collingham 2011.
225 among Japanese children: Cwiertka 2006.
225 inadequate diet: Collingham 2011.
226 “eating habits”: Ishige 2001.
226 great discernment about food: Kushner 2012.
226 “Japanese food”: Ishige 2001.
227 “soy sauce and gingerroot”: Rozin 1994.
228 way of eating: Henry 2014.
229 “glucose under control”: Miller and Rollnick 2013.
232 first read it: Ibid.
233 how to change behavior: Spahn et al. 2010; see also Resnicow and Rollnick 2006.
233 intensive diet treatment: Bowen et al 2002.
234 lower their BMI: Tang and Verboom 2014.
234 “delivering MI”: Miller and Rollnick 2013.
235 without conscious effort: Chapman and Ogden 2010.
235 seamless change: Chris Smyth, “Decision to Scrap Salt Target Costs 6000 Lives a Year,” The Times, April 29, 2015, http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/health/news/article4425583.ece, accessed April 2015.
236 “just happened”: Chapman and Ogden 2010.
236 no bananas in the house: Mentioned in Webb et al. 2006.
236 peelers, and whisks: Appelhans et al. 2014.
236 healthier behavior: Lucas et al. 2013.
237 “special occasion”: Comments made by Baldeesh Rai after her presentation “Asian Diets and Cardiovascular Disease,” Nutrition and Health Live conference, London, 2013.
237 at least a year: Wing and Phelan 2005; Elfhag and Rössner 2005.
238 sessions of behavioral coaching: Anderson et al. 2007a.
238 medical support: Anderson et al. 2007b.
238 whereas maintainers do: Elfhag and Rössner 2005.
239 1990 study from California: Kayman et al. 1990.
240 revert to their normal foods: Ibid.
240 “pleasure response”: Drewnowski 1997.
242 weak sugar solutions: Shepherd 2012; Gonzalez et al. 2008.
242 very salty foods: Mattes 1997.
242 high-sodium varieties: Ibid.
244 “always disdained”: Itard 1932.
244 classes du goût: Puisais and Pierre 1987.
244 savoir vivre: Reverdy et al. 2010.
245 “Sapere Method”: Koistinen and Ruhanen 2009.
245 jam and whipped cream: Sapere, “Children’s Food Education in Early Childhood Education,” http://www.peda.net/veraja/projekti/saperemenetelma, acc
essed December 2014.
246 with their fingers: Koistinen and Ruhanen 2009.
246 obesity in Jyväskylä: Email from Arja Lyytikäïnen to author, April 2014.
246 “like a ghost”: Koistinen and Ruhanen 2009.
247 complex ones: Reverdy et al. 2008, 2010; Mustonen and Tuorila 2010.
247 unseasoned potatoes: Reverdy et al. 2010.
248 lead them to a healthier diet: Mustonen and Tuorila 2010.
249 feel patronized: Keller et al. 2005.
249 “5-a-day”: Hughes et al. 2004.
249 enjoyment of healthy food in old age: Ulander 2008.
250 widely among the elderly: Email to author from Albert Westergren, February 2015.
252 refuted this theory: Rozin and Schiller 1980.
Further Reading
The bibliography lists the sources that I drew on when researching this subject. I’d like to mention in particular the multifaceted work of Paul Rozin, whose research interests in food straddle psychology, culture, and neuroscience and who seems incapable of writing a boring sentence. If you’re interested in more practical day-to-day thoughts on eating better, I recommend the following books. What they have in common is that, instead of doling out a set of rules on what foods we should eat, they look in a more holistic way at methods and approaches by which we can start to eat better.
Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think, by Brian Wansink, shows how much we delude ourselves when it comes to how much we eat and provides useful techniques anyone could use to avoid overeating. VB6: Eat Vegan Before 6:00 to Lose Weight and Restore Your Health, by Mark Bittman, describes the regime that Bittman—the food writer for the New York Times—adopted after a doctor warned him he was prediabetic. Bittman now eats nothing but vegan food until 6 p.m. and anything he likes thereafter. Even if you don’t wish to follow him down the full vegan route—for me, breakfast toast without butter is too gloomy—his “flexitarian” approach offers a pragmatic model of how you can change your eating permanently without going “on a diet.”
A Change of Appetite, by Diana Henry, is a wonderful collection of “accidentally healthy” recipes, none of which tastes like deprivation, interspersed with essays on nutrition; another cookbook that has helped me to eat inadvertently better is A Modern Way to Cook, by Anna Jones, a collection of sumptuous yet light vegetarian recipes. Finally, Child of Mine: Feeding with Love and Good Sense, by Ellyn Satter, is full of wisdom about how to set children up with healthy eating habits, without mealtimes becoming a battleground. Satter writes about the aim of feeding as being to enable children to master certain “competencies.” These include: to like eating and to enjoy being at the table, to be able to wait a few minutes to eat when hungry, to rely on internal cues to recognize fullness, to enjoy many different foods, to try new ones, and to eat comfortably in places other than home. As Satter remarks, some of the adults reading her book may “get the uneasy feeling that you haven’t mastered all of these competencies yourself.” But there’s still time.