I durst never dere it in deedes of armes
But ever keeped clene because of myselven.
For I see Clarent uncledde that crown is of swordes,
My wardrope at Walingford I wot is destroyed.
Wiste no wye of wonne but Waynor herselven;
Sho had the keeping herself of that kidd wepen,
Of coffers enclosed that to the crown longed,
With ringes and relickes and the regale of Fraunce
That was founden on Sir Frolle when he was fey leved.”211
— The Alliterative Morte Arthure
Alliterative Morte Arthure
Not to be confused with Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthur or the Mort Artu that is part of the Vulgate Cycle, Morte Arthure, sometimes called The Alliterative Morte Arthure to distinguish it, is a 4,346-line Middle English alliterative poem, retelling the latter part of the legend of King Arthur. It was written around the year 1400 by an unknown author (possibly a poet named Huchoun) and there is only one manuscript of it still extant. It’s one of the lesser-known works of Arthurian literature and all but unknown to non-academic audiences.
The Alliterative Morte Arthure draws from Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace/Layamon as main sources, but there are other parts that appear to be original to its author. Tichelaar explains, “The Alliterative Morte Arthure, unlike the slightly earlier Stanzaic Morte Arthur, rejected French additions [by Chrétien] by returning to the plot of Guinevere willingly marrying Mordred…. The poet first deleted the French romantic additions. Then he added new details to Guinevere and Mordred’s relationship to make the queen’s guilt more substantial. Like Layamon and Wace, the poet was largely clarifying Geoffrey of Monmouth’s statements.”212 With Mordred as Guinevere’s groom, The Alliterative Morte Arthure eliminates the relationship between Lancelot and Guinevere. Thomas Malory appears to have heavily drawn on this alliterative version for the second part of his famous work of a similar name, with the only major change being turning the tragedy of the poem into a story of triumph in the end.213
Guinevere plays a very small role in the poem, in which, as we shall see, she is portrayed as a terrible mother and a treasonous queen. One of the most unique additions that this poem makes to the character of Guinevere is that it shows her “bear[ing] Mordred’s children as a sign of her and Mordred’s love for each other. No other text makes Guinevere the mother of Mordred’s children.”214
In general, Guinevere’s depiction in this work is largely negative, and according to Beal, she functions mostly as a symbol of grief.215 Fries summarizes Guinevere’s reduced role: “Guinevere, developed in the Prose Vulgate from Chrétien’s characterization in the Charette into a subtle female portrait in the Lancelot and Mort Artu and Malory’s Morte, is diminished in the alliterative poem. Her warmth and her grandeur, her jealousy and her capriciousness, are here reduced to two briefly described scenes.”216
The first time Guinevere appears in the poem, she is weeping over Arthur leaving for war, which Beal believes makes her a symbol of all war widows.217 At first, this interpretation might seem odd, but looking at the text, it becomes a strong possibility. Here she certainly sounds like every woman across the centuries who has had to send a beloved boyfriend or husband off to war: “Guinevere, softly weeping, embraces him/And speaks to him tenderly, with tears without measure/ ‘I could curse the man has caused this war/That denies me the honor of/And robs my right to serve my wedded lord/All my life’s joy is departing the land/And I am left in desolation, believe me, forever.”218
Guinevere’s second appearance has her weeping as she leaves to become a nun, which Beal says makes her a symbol of women who have lost children.219 “Guenevere weeps as she goes to take the veil, dressed as for death—facing the loss of her second husband and their children…[her] mourning recalls the episodes in the poem that recall the slaughter of children.”220
It is not without significance that Guinevere enters the convent out of fear that either Arthur or Mordred will kill her, leaving her children victim to Arthur’s anger, rather than out of repentance as in previous stories.221 Beal explains, “Again Guenevere weeps, then goes to Caerleon in garments signifying death or mourning, and the mention of Guenevere’s children elides into their loss.”222 So in leaving them behind, she has condemned them to near certain death, the actions of a selfish woman rather than a caring mother. When all is said and done, Beal argues, “the poem has no sympathy for Guenevere, at the end left without any honor,”223 or as the text tells us, “but all in falseness and fraud and fear of her lord.”224
However, Tichelaar argues Guinevere has a much more active and important role in the poem than Beal sees. He says the passage quoted at the opening of this chapter shows “Guinevere as aggressively committing treason against Arthur by giving Mordred Arthur’s sword, Clarent, which she has in her keeping. Guinevere is the only one Arthur trusted with his sword, so when she gives it to Mordred, she is actively betraying Arthur’s trust. There is no more traitorous act she could commit than to use Arthur’s own sword against him.”225 Tichelaar appears correct; even if not, Guinevere is most certainly guilty of treason by way of her marriage to Mordred while she was still wed to Arthur.
Thomas Malory
Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur is one of the most famous works of Arthurian legend, routinely taught in high schools and colleges in the United States and Britain. Of all of the works discussed in this book, it is the one most people probably know. Thanks to this 1470 work, which spans twenty-one volumes, we have a popular notion of King Arthur as the greatest Christian King ever to rule England. Malory firmly placed Arthur in the Middle Ages, which is one reason why a lot of people have a hard time thinking of him as a historical Celt. He is also responsible for popularizing Guinevere’s kidnapping by Malegant, making Morgan a shape-shifter, and giving generations of readers the hope that Arthur may come again when Britain most needs him. T. H. White, the musical Camelot, and frankly anyone else who dabbles in the legends, owe him and his forebears a lot.
The Poisoned Apple
“Then, as the book saith, sir Lancelot began to resort unto queen Guenevere again, and forgot the promise and the perfection that he made in the quest.”226
Most people are familiar with Book Eight of Le Morte d’Arthur, “The Death of Arthur,” but Guinevere also figures into Book Seven, which begins with the story of “The Poisoned Apple.” It opens by telling us that after the quest of Sakgreall (Sangreall or the quest for the Holy Grail), Lancelot and Guinevere resumed their affair. As is usual in these stories, Mordred and Agravain spread evil rumors about them throughout the court. Because of this, Lancelot stays away. Guinevere accuses him of no longer loving her, claiming she will never love him. In a fit of anger, she banishes him from the court to Brittany.
While Arthur and the others are grieved by Lancelot’s absence, Guinevere feigns indifference and spends much time in the company of the other knights. She personally prepares a great feast for them, but in the midst of the revelry, Sir Patrise of Ireland collapses dead from one bite of a poisoned apple that had been on Gawain’s plate.
When Guinevere is accused of murder by Sir Mador, Arthur has to uphold his own law, so Guinevere is given fifteen days to find a knight to defend her or she will be burned at the stake. The rumors spread by Mordred and Agravain work so well that no one will defend her. Eventually, Sir Bors reluctantly agrees. But on the fifteenth day, an unknown knight comes to defend Guinevere. He defeats Sir Mador, who recants his accusation. The Lady of the Lake appears and declares Guinevere innocent, revealing the real killer, who is linked to Mordred and Morgan. When the knight reveals himself to be Lancelot, some people are joyful, but others see this as confirmation that Mordred’s rumors about Guinevere and Lancelot are true.
In addition to the role this story plays in Le Morte d’Arthur, “The Poisoned Apple” shows who was loyal to Guinevere and who was not, as well as t
he differing opinions and lack of trust surrounding Guinevere.227 Arthurian enthusiast Morgause of Orkney elaborates: “The fact that not one of the knights believes her to be innocent (with the exception of Bors), and their refusal to support her for fear of dishonouring themselves, is a far cry from their earlier readiness to defend the queen at all costs. This is more than just another tale of Lancelot’s bravery and nobility—there is a real distrust of the queen amongst the knights of the Round Table…Guinevere’s near brush with death shows that not even the knights’ respect for Arthur will persuade them to champion her cause.”228
The titular apple is seen as a symbol of many things, not the least of which are the Round Table and Camelot itself (the poison being what brings about the end of Camelot). According to Kenneth Hodges, “Guinevere’s actions, particularly in ‘The Poisoned Apple,’ show her struggling to hold together the unity of the Round Table, threatened by the rivalries among the affinities (factions of Arthur’s knights).”229 C. David Benson, in his article about the end of Le Morte, notes the immediate sense at the beginning of the story that “these are indeed the final days of the Round Table.”230 The Grail Quest is over, but not all of the knights are still with them. The end is near; all that remains is to wait for the final tragedy to unfold.
The apple can also be related to Guinevere. Morgause of Orkney sees it as being symbolic of Guinevere and Lancelot’s relationship. “It might seem like another poisoned apple is Lancelot and Guinevere’s relationship, both through the fact that the affair is in the spotlight throughout the chapter, and that it will eventually have a corrosive effect on the unity and bonds of trust between the knights of the Round Table. It’s also a good opportunity for Malory to point out, yet again, that Lancelot is the Ultimate Sinner because of his renewed love for Gwen in defiance of God’s wishes.”
Sin is a common theme with the apple, for obvious reasons. David Day believes it is an allusion to Eve and original sin, thus hinting at Guinevere’s affair with Lancelot. He notes that “it also implies comparison with Troy, whose downfall was the result of a poisonous curse placed on a golden apple and a beautiful queen’s adulterous love affair.”231
Interestingly, at least one scholar sees a connection between this story and its more famous cousin, which we will examine shortly. David C. Benson writes, “Malory moves the story [of the Knight in the Cart] to a much later point in the Arthurian saga and uses it both to explore the love of Guinevere and Lancelot and to replay the themes of ‘The Poisoned Apple’ in a darker mode.”232
Le Morte d’Arthur
“Guinevere, learning of the battle
And the deadly ruin done,
Took five ladies and went away
To Amesbury as a nun,
And there remained in holy prayer,
Weeping evermore.
She never would be happy again:
Yes, white and black she wore.” 233
— Le Morte d’Arthur by Thomas Malory
After several centuries on the periphery, Guinevere is finally a key character. In fact, Ann Howey sees her as the cornerstone of Le Morte d’Arthur, writing that Guinevere “inspires the plot of the work as a whole. First, she is often the mechanism by which Lancelot is sent from court on different adventures….Second, she provides the framework for more examples of Lancelot’s prowess….Third, the revelation of their love set in motion the feud that will take Arthur from England, allowing Mordred to usurp the throne.”234
Before analyzing this on a deeper level, a quick plot summary of the parts of the story concerning Guinevere is in order.
Guinevere is kidnapped by Melegraunce and rescued by Lancelot. Though Morgan twice attempts to poison Arthur’s mind that the two are having an affair, they are still chaste. But Arthur and Morgan are not, and she conceives his child. In a move that harkens back to the more brutal, tyrannical Arthur found in the earliest Arthurian legend, the King, like the Biblical King Herod, orders all newborn males killed in an effort to rid himself of his unwanted newborn son.
When Guinevere hears Lancelot has gotten Elaine pregnant, she scorns him for being unfaithful to her, but then she believes his explanation that he thought he was lying with her and forgives him. However, she is still jealous when Elaine comes to court. After Lancelot is again tricked into Elaine’s bed, Guinevere banishes him from her sight.
Lancelot goes mad and disappears into the forest. Despite paying high sums of money to try to find him, Guinevere fails for fifteen years. When Lancelot returns in time to see his son knighted and go on the Grail Quest, Guinevere weeps for joy. Lancelot cannot achieve the Grail because of his past love for Guinevere, even though it was chaste.235 They love each other even more now, but despite frequent intimate conversations in public, they are not yet lovers.
Again, Mordred and Agravain spread rumors that Lancelot and the queen are having sex. Lancelot avoids Guinevere and pays attention to other women to stave off scandal. As in Chrétien, they talk through iron bars leading to her chamber. He asks to come in and she says yes, so he pulls out the bars through the strength of his desire. But Malory does not explicitly tell us if they had sex. They are trapped by Mordred and Agrivane, though they are not guilty on that night.
Guinevere is sentenced to the stake and Lancelot rescues her. He keeps her safe while Arthur attacks Joyous Gard, but then he returns her to Arthur. She becomes a nun at Amesbury after Arthur and Mordred’s deaths as penance for her sin. One day, she unexpectedly runs into Lancelot in the town surrounding the convent and faints at the sight of him. Lancelot wants to take her with him to France, but she advises him to go and take a wife. He asks her to kiss him one final time, but she refuses.
She returns to the nunnery having taken responsibility for her sins and her role in the downfall of Camelot. Later, Lancelot has a vision of Guinevere’s impending death and goes to take her body to be buried beside Arthur’s at Glastonbury.
Like the story, Malory’s Guinevere is complex, and often contradictory, which can make it difficult to get a handle on exactly who Malory intended her to be. Bonner notes that Guinevere’s abrupt repentance without noticeable motivation “leaves readers puzzling over the route from point A, Guinevere as noble figure, to point B, Guinevere as conniving adulteress, to point C, Guinevere as repentant nun. Guinevere’s change is too undocumented to be believable…Therefore, readers still face a dilemma concerning sympathy for her character and her enduring positive image.”236 It is possible that Malory, like Chrétien, was not comfortable with the affair, but by the time he was writing, it was such an important part of the story, he couldn’t leave it out.237 Ross agrees, noting, “The English and French traditions disagree on whether chivalry is heroic or merely sinful and on the characterization of Arthur, Gawain, Guinevere and Lancelot. Most importantly, ambiguity results from ironic disjunction between Malory’s materials and his own views.”238 This would explain the abrupt changes in Guinevere’s personality, as Malory grappled with a sin he was forced to include, but then had to find a way to redeem.
Malory is known to have drawn on a number of sources for this work – this is sometimes seen as the reason for his inconsistency when it comes to Guinevere. Ross believes that “the widely varied sources and Malory’s inexperience as an author (or historian, as he saw his role) mean that Guinevere suffers from a bi-polarity within her characterization. She blows hot and cold in her dealings with Lancelot, so much so that her instability becomes part of her character in later Arthurian retellings (Tennyson in particular uses this to his advantage).”239
Walters agrees, but notes Malory’s watering down of the total denouncement of her in other texts. “Malory portrays Guinevere as a beautiful, courageous lady and an effective queen who assumes the function of judge and teacher of chivalry to young knights. Her rashness, however, calls down destruction on her own head; when she undergoes three public accusations of adultery, the other knights come to see her as a destr
oyer of men. Malory, however, does not go so far as the full condemnation of her found in previous versions of the story.”240
Malory may not be as hard on her as some of his predecessors but many readers are more than happy to disparage her characterization. Hodges writes, “Although Sir Thomas Malory says Queen Guinevere ‘was a trew lover, and therefor she had a good ende,’ many critics have found her ‘jealous, unreasonable, possessive and headstrong.’”241 Indeed, Malory imputes great pride, lack of trust, and jealousy to Guinevere, especially in relation to Elaine.242 However, Benson notes that despite her fickleness, extreme unreasonableness, and being quick to take offense, this Guinevere possesses “a force and dignity…that is not in Malory’s two sources and that will enable her to respond to the coming storm.”243 Likewise, Norris Lacy finds a middle ground, calling Guinevere “the epic Queen of history and chronicle, bounteous of her gifts to the knights of the Round Table, and she is also the tragic heroine of romance, deserving our pity for having been given in marriage to a man she must respect but cannot love, and fated to love a man she cannot marry.”244
Guinevere as Symbol
Another way to look at the conflicting character of Guinevere is that she is really meant to be viewed as more than simply a character; as in earlier works, she and her actions can also be seen as symbolic. Ross notes that Malory does this with many of his characters. “Individuality is peripheral in Malory. What matters in Le Morte D’arthur is how much a knight possesses chivalric traits: Malory is interested not in Lancelot but in Sir Lancelot.”245 If that is the case, might it not also be true that he is not interested in Guinevere, but Queen Guinevere—how well she lives up to the example of the ideal queen? If that is the case, her contradictions begin to make sense since she both fulfills and fails in her duties as a queen. On one hand, she is a capable supervisor and helpmate to Arthur, yet she fails to produce an heir, which is her most important duty.246 In succumbing to her feelings for Lancelot, Guinevere also fails in her fidelity to her king, which is the supreme duty of any subject, especially the queen.
The Once and Future Queen Page 9