10. Ibid.
11. E. Franklin Frazier, “The Garvey Movement,” Opportunity 4 (November 1926): 346-348. Reprinted in Meier and Rudwick, eds., The Making of Black America, vol. 2 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), p. 204.
12. Compare the lists of delegates to UNIA conventions in Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vols. 4 and 5, appendices, and list of state ex-slave pension agents filed May 13, 1902, with A. W. Roone, special examiner, Record Group 15, Pension Bureau, Department of the Interior, Ex-Slave Pensions, National Archives; Mary Gambrell Robinson, “The Garvey Movement in the Rural South, 1920-1927,” Ph.D. dissertation, Georgia State University, 2002, p. 75.
13. Hill, The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, p. 202; Mary Gambrell Rolinson, The Garvey Movement in the Rural South, 1920—1927, Ph.D. dissertation, Georgia State University, 2002, pp. 92—93; Bobby L. Lovett, ed., From Winter to Winter: The Afro-American History of Nashville, Tennessee, 1870—1930 (Nashville: Department of History and Geography, Tennessee State University, 1981), p. 253. Carruthers lived with his wife, Louise, at 171 Fairfield Avenue; Nashville City Directory, 1924; in the 1930 directory the address is 116 Fairfield.
14. Berry and Blassingame, Long Memory, pp. 405—406.
15. Darlene Clark Hine, ed., Black Women in America (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishers, 1993), p. 812.
16. Queen Mother Moore formed the Reparations Committee of Descendants of United States Slaves, Inc., along with Daraubakari. In 1962, they presented a reparations petition to the United Nations; Winbush, Should America Pay?, p. 203.
17. William van der Burg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965—1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1992), p. 8; James Baldwin, No Name in the Street (New York: Dial, 1972), pp. 119—120; the Malcolm X quote is from C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmann’s Publishing Company, 1994; first published 1961), p. 92. Malcolm X did not repudiate reparations even after he left the Nation of Islam.
18. Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Cant Wait (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), p. 134; James Bolner, “Toward a Theory of Racial Reparations,” Phylon 29 (Spring 1968): 41—47; Kyle Haselden and Whitney M. Young, Jr., “Should There Be Compensation for Negroes?,” The New York Times Magazine, October 6, 1963, p. 43ff.; Graham Hughes, “Reparation for Blacks?,” New York University Law Review 43 (December 1968): 1063-1074.
19. Berry and Blassingame, Long Memory, p. 406.
20. Ibid., pp. 218-221.
21. August Maier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 162-174; Chris Jenkins and Hamil Harris, “Descendants of Slaves Rally for Reparations: Organizers Call Event Milestone in Movement,” The Washington Post, August 18, 2002, p. 1.
22. John Conyers, Jr., with Jo Ann Nicholls Watson, “Reparations: An Idea Whose Time Has Come,” in Winbush, Should America Pay?, pp. 14-21.
23. 50 U.S.C. Ann. Sec 1989; Hohri v. United States, 482 U.S. 64 (1987); 782 F2d 227 (1987); 842 F2d 779 (1988).
24. Hohri v. United States, 482 U.S. 64 (1987); 782 F2d 227 (1987); 842 F2d 779 (1988); Judge Skelly Wright’s opinion; 586 F Supp. 769 (1984); Rhonda Magee, “The Master’s Tools, from the Bottom Up: Responses to African American Reparations Theory in Mainstream and Outsider Remedies Discourse,” Virginia Law Review 79, no. 863 (1993): 863-905.
25. Conyers with Watson, “Reparations,” pp. 14-21.
26. Ibid. In 2000, Congressman Tony Hall of Ohio proposed a formal resolution to acknowledge and apologize for slavery. It, like Conyers’s bill that he keeps reintroducing and the ex-slave pension legislation of Cal-lie House, has never emerged from committee.
27. Cato v. United States, 70 F. 3d 1103 (9th Circuit, 1995) caused little stir, perhaps because it involved only three plaintiffs and commanded little media attention. It was dismissed for lack of standing, lack of jurisdiction, and the inability to overcome sovereign immunity. They proceeded pro se, but Eva Patterson and William McNeil of the Lawyers Committee for Civil Rights of San Francisco represented them pro bono on appeal. After District Judge Saundra Brown Armstrong dismissed the complaint, the court of appeals affirmed her order.
28. Obadele v. United States, 52 Fed. Cl. 432 (2002).
29. Ibid.
30. Daedria Farmer-Pallman describes her involvement in Winbush, Should America Pay?, pp. 22-31; Michael Orey, “Federal Suits Against Three U.S. Companies Seek Damages for Descendants of Slaves,” The New York Times, March 27, 2002, p. B10; Darryl Fears, “Aging Sons of Slaves Join Reparations Battle,” The Washington Post, September 30, 2002, p. A3.
31. Tatsha Robertson, “Reparations for Slavery: An Old Idea Goes Mainstream,” The Boston Globe, April 4, 2002, p. A1.
32. “Lawyers Hope Tulsa Case Can Lay Foundation for More Claims,” The Boston Globe, February 26, 2003; Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Final Report (2001), available at www.ok-history.mus.ok.us/trrc/freport.pdf; Scott Ellsworth, Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982).
33. “Lawyers Hope Tulsa Case Can Lay Foundation for More Claims,” The Boston Globe, February 26, 2003.
34. Jeremy Levitt, “Black African Reparations: Making a Claim for Enslavement and Systematic De Jure Segregation and Racial Discrimination Under American and International Law,” Southern University Law Review 25, no. 1 (1997): 30—32.
35. Adjoa A. Aiyetoro, “Formulating Reparations Litigation Through the Eyes of the Movement,” New York University Annual Survey of American Law 58 (2003): 457.
36. Levitt, “Black African Reparations,” p. 32; William L. Patterson, ed., We Charge Genocide: The Crime of the Government Against the Negro People (New York: International Publishers, 1951).
37. Glenn Kessler, “IRS Paid $30 Million in Credits for Slavery,” The Washington Post, April 13, 2002, p. 1; United States v. Bridges, 217 Fd. 3rd 841 2000 WL 931448 (4th Cir. Va.).
38. Chris Jenkins and Hamil Harris, “Descendants of Slaves Rally for Reparations: Organizer Calls Event Milestone in the Movement,” The Washington Post, August 18, 2002, p. C1. In another new departure, Brown University president Ruth Simmons, the first black president in the Ivy League, established a committee to explore reparations in the context of a founders’ involvement with the slave trade. Simmons noted that the building in which her office is located was built with the labor of slaves. NBC Today, March 30, 2004, WL56560808.
FIRST VINTAGE BOOKS EDITION, OCTOBER 2006
Copyright © 2005 by Mary Frances Berry
All rights reserved. Published in the United States by Vintage Books, a division of
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Vintage and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.
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Berry, Mary Frances.
My face is black is true: Callie House and the struggle for ex-slave
reparations / Mary Frances Berry. —1st ed.
p. cm.
1. House, Callie, 1861—1928. 2. African American women political activists—
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