Sex was widely available, and often for sale; this bedroom fresco gave stimulation and guidance to its occupants. Brothels thrived. So too did old-fashioned male attitudes, as a Pompeiian wall graffito indicated. “If Venus can break my tender heart, why can’t I hit her over the head?” (Photo: Heinrich Stürzl)
TIME LINE
Dates in italics are traditional and legendary. Some traditional dates are judged likely to be historical. Some people and places are listed here whose names, to avoid an excess of detail, do not appear in the main text.
1084
Fall of Troy.
753
Romulus founds Rome.
c. 625
Earliest evidence of contact with the Etruscans.
753–715
Romulus.
715–673
Numa Pompilius.
673–642
Tullus Hostilius.
642–616
Ancus Marcius.
617–579
Tarquinius Priscus.
579–534
Servius Tullius.
534–510
Tarquinius Superbus.
509
Fall of the monarchy. First treaty with Carthage.
494
First secession.
493
Treaty of Spurius Cassius with the Latins.
491
Coriolanus marches on Rome.
From 486
Wars with the Aequi and Volsci from time to time over the next fifty years.
479
Battle of the Cremera; sacrifice of the Fabii.
474
Etruscans defeated off Cumae by Hiero I of Syracuse.
471
Concilium plebis and tribunes recognized.
451–450
Rule of the decemvirs. Twelve Tables published.
449
Secession. Valerio-Horatian laws. Rights of tribunes legally defined.
447
Quaestors elected by the People.
Comitia tributa probably established.
445
Military tribunes with consular powers replace the consulship.
443
Censors appointed for the first time.
431
Dictatorship of Cincinnatus.
Battle of Mons Algidus. Aequi decisively defeated.
396
Pay for soldiers introduced.
Fall of Veii.
390 (or 387)
Battle of the Allia.
Sack of Rome.
378
Construction of Rome’s Servian walls starts.
367
Licinio-Sextian Rogations passed.
Consulship restored. Curule aediles elected for the first time.
366
First plebeian consul elected. First praetors elected.
358
Treaty with the Latins renewed.
356
First plebeian dictator.
354
Alliance with the Samnites.
348
Treaty with Carthage renewed.
343–341
First Samnite War.
340–338
Latins revolt. Latin League dissolved.
337
First plebeian praetor elected.
326–304
Second Samnite War.
323
Alexander’s death.
321
Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks.
312
Censorship of Appius Claudius.
298–290
Third Samnite War.
295
Battle of Sentinum.
287
Lex Hortensia makes resolutions of the
concilium plebis
binding on all citizens.
282
Tarentum attacks Roman naval squadron.
281
Rome attacks Tarentum, which seeks help from Pyrrhus of Epirus.
280–275
War with Pyrrhus.
279
Battle of Asculum.
278
Roman treaty with Carthage.
Pyrrhus goes to Sicily.
276
Pyrrhus returns to Italy.
275
Pyrrhus defeated at Malventum, returns to Greece.
272
Surrender of Tarentum.
Livius Andronicus brought to Rome.
264
First Punic War starts. Mamertines of Messana appeal to Rome for assistance against Carthage. Rome sends an expeditionary force.
First gladiatorial show at Rome.
263
Hiero II changes sides, and allies Syracuse to Rome.
263/62
Sicilian city-states come under Roman control.
262/61
Siege and fall of Acragas.
261
The Carthaginian navy raids the Italian coast from Sardinia. Rome builds a fleet.
260
Naval victory off Mylae.
259
Hamilcar Barca campaigns in Sicily; also, fighting in Corsica and Sardinia.
258
Rome attacks Panormus. Carthaginians defeated off Sulci, in Sardinia.
257
Rome raids Malta and wins minor victory at Tyndaris.
256
Regulus defeats Carthaginian fleet at Ecnomus and sails to North Africa, where he defeats a Punic army and takes Tunis.
256/55
Peace negotiations fail.
255
Spartan Xanthippus leads Carthaginian army to victory near Tunis over Regulus, who is taken prisoner. Roman fleet victorious off Cape Bon. Survivors of Regulus’s army are rescued. Storm inflicts great losses on a Roman fleet.
255/54
Roman fleet rebuilt.
254
Rome captures Panormus; Carthage holds Drepana and sacks Acragas.
253
Rome fails to take Lilybaeum. Major Roman naval losses in a storm.
252
Rome captures Thermae Himerae and the Lipara Islands.
251/50
Hasdrubal defeated near Panormus.
250–241
Roman siege of Lilybaeum.
249
Carthage wins a great sea victory off Drepana over Claudius Pulcher. Heavy Roman losses in a storm near Camarina. Rome seizes Eryx.
248
Mutiny by Carthaginian mercenaries is put down.
248–244
Punic raids on the Italian coast.
247
Hamilcar Barca arrives in Sicily and sets up camp on Mount Heirkte.
244
Hamilcar captures Eryx.
242
New Roman fleet blockades Drepana and Lilybaeum.
242/41
Decisive Roman victory off the Aegates Islands.
241
Peace gives Rome control of Sicily. First Punic War ends.
241–237
Mercenary War at Carthage.
238–225
Invasion and annexation of Corsica and Sardinia.
236
Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal go to Spain. Barca launches a war of conquest.
231
Roman embassy to Hamilcar Barca in Spain.
229–228
First Illyrian War.
228
Hamilcar Barca killed in battle. His son-in-law, Hasdrubal, succeeds to his command.
226
Roman embassy to Hasdrubal in Spain. Ebro treaty.
225
Celtic invasion halted at Battle of Telamon.
221
Hasdrubal assassinated. Hannibal succeeds to the command.
Saguntum appeals to Rome.
219
Second Illyrian War.
Hannibal storms Saguntum.
218–201
Second Punic War.
218
Hannibal climbs the Alps and enters Italy.
Battle
s of the Ticinus and the Trebia.
217
Battle of Lake Trasimene.
216
Fabius Maximus, dictator.
Battle of Cannae. Large-scale defections in southern Italy; revolt of Capua.
215
Partial Roman recovery.
Hiero of Syracuse dies.
214
Roman successes in Spain.
Syracuse defects to the Carthaginians.
214–205
First Macedonian War.
213
Marcellus besieges Syracuse.
212
Hannibal takes Tarentum.
Marcellus takes Syracuse.
Scipios take Saguntum.
211
Hannibal marches on Rome.
Capua recaptured.
Scipios defeated and killed.
210
Young Scipio (later Africanus) arrives in Spain.
209
Scipio takes New Carthage.
208
Marcellus ambushed and killed.
Scipio wins Battle of Baecula. Hasdrubal disengages and marches to Italy.
207
Hasdrubal defeated and killed at the Battle of the Metaurus.
206
Scipio wins Battle of Ilipa, leaves for Italy.
205
Scipio elected consul, wins African command. Scipio in Sicily.
204
Scipio lands in northern Africa.
Ennius brought to Rome.
Cult of Great Mother introduced in Rome.
203
Carthaginian and Numidian camps destroyed.
Battle of the Great Plains.
Peace negotiations.
Hannibal recalled to Carthage.
202
Last dictator appointed before Sulla.
Battle of Zama. Carthage capitulates.
Fabius Pictor writes first prose history of Rome.
201
Rome negotiates peace treaty. Carthage becomes a client state.
200–196
Second Macedonian War.
197
Philip V of Macedon loses Battle of Cynoscephalae.
Peace agreed with Philip.
196
Flamininus announces liberation of Greece at Corinth.
Hannibal elected
sufet
at Carthage.
195
Hannibal exiled from Carthage.
Masinissa begins encroachments on Punic territory.
194
Rome evacuates Greece.
192–189
War with Antiochus.
Antiochus in Greece.
191
Battle of Thermopylae. Antiochus driven from Greece.
189
Antiochus loses battle of Magnesia to the Scipios.
188
Settlement of Asia.
187
Criticism of the Scipios.
186
Bacchanalian conspiracy.
184
Scipio withdraws from Rome.
Cato elected censor.
181–179
First Celtiberian War in Spain.
179
Philip V of Macedon dies, succeeded by Perseus.
173
Embassy sent to arbitrate between Masinissa and Carthage.
172
Two plebeian consuls, for the first time.
172–167
Third Macedonian War.
168
Perseus defeated at Battle of Pydna.
167
Macedon divided into four republics.
One thousand Achaeans deported to Italy (including Polybius).
166–159
Production of Terence’s comedies.
153–151
Second Celtiberian War.
151
Carthage declares war on Masinissa.
149–146
Third Punic War.
149
Publication of Cato’s Origines.
147
Macedon becomes a province.
146
Sack of Carthage.
Africa becomes a province.
War between Rome and the Achaean League.
Sack of Corinth.
143–133
Third Celtiberian War.
133
Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune. Land-reform law passed and land commission created.
Pergamum bequeathed to Rome by King Attalus III.
Gracchus murdered by rioting senators.
Scipio Aemilianus takes Numantia. Spain settled.
Slave war in Sicily continues.
132
Special court set up to punish Gracchus’s supporters.
Secret ballot for legislation votes in the People’s Assembly.
Slave war in Sicily ended.
129
Scipio Aemilianus dies mysteriously.
125
Proposal to enfranchise the Latins fails.
123
Gaius Gracchus elected tribune for the first time. Proposes many laws this year and in 122.
Tiberius’s land reform confirmed.
Special courts barred from imposing death penalty unless approved by the People.
Judicial reforms: extortion court juries to comprise equites only.
Large overseas coloniae planned, including Junonia, on the site of Carthage.
Grain supply and distribution improved.
Many construction and road-building projects commissioned.
Proposal to extend citizenship to all Italian allies rejected.
122
Gaius Gracchus elected tribune for the second time.
Gracchus opposed by Tribune Marcus Livius Drusus. Fails to win reelection for 121.
Senate passes the Final Decree (state of emergency) for the first time.
Gracchus and followers defeated by force of senators and
equites. Gracchus killed or commits suicide.
116
Problem of Jugurtha begins. Senatorial commission of inquiry partitions Numidian kingdom between Jugurtha and Adherbal.
112
Jugurtha besieges Adherbal, who surrenders and is put to death. Italian merchants in Numidia massacred. Rome declares war on Jugurtha.
111
Jugurtha surrenders but keeps his crown. Visits Rome, where he has a Numidian opponent murdered.
110
War with Jugurtha resumes.
109
Metellus campaigns against Jugurtha.
107
Marius, elected consul, replaces Metellus.
106
Marius advances into western Numidia.
The Rise of Rome Page 42