by Jeff Chang
12. Cruikshank, “Public Enemy: The Complete Rap,” 11 (see chap. 12, n. 19).
13. Lisa Y. Sullivan, “The Demise of Black Civil Society: Once Upon A Time When We Were Colored Meets the Hip-Hop Generation,” Social Policy (Winter 1996), 7.
14. Trey Ellis, “The New Black Aesthetic,” Callaloo (12)1 (Winter 1989), 236, 237.
15. Ibid., 240.
16. Tate, Flyboy, 199 (see chap. 10, n. 21).
17. Ibid., 127,129.
18. Ibid., 125.
19. National Urban League, Stop the Violence: Overcoming Self Destruction, ed. Nelson George (New York: Pantheon Books, 1990), 12.
20. Robert Palmer, Deep Blues (New York and London: Penguin Books, 1981), 27.
21. Chuck D, interview by John Leland, unpublished transcript (July 17, 1988); from Bill Adler’s Hip-Hop Archives.
22. “Public Enemy—Rebels on Fast Forward,” Caribbean Times (UK) (November 27, 1987), 17. Julian Rake, “Behind Enemy Lines, Sounds (November 7, 1987), 40.
23. Ed Guerrero, Do the Right Thing (London: British Film Institute, 2001), 33, 84.
24. Jack Kroll, “How Hot Is Too Hot?: The Fuse Has Been Lit,” Newsweek (July 3, 1989),64.
25. David Denby, “He’s Gotta Have It,” New York (June 26, 1989), 53.
26. Joe Klein, “Spiked?” New York (June 26, 1989), 14–15.
27. Ibid. Emphasis in original text.
28. Stanley Crouch, “Do the Race Thing,” Village Voice (June 20, 1989), 74.
29. Ibid., 74–76.
30. Kelly, “Rhyme and Reason,” 63 (see chap. 12, n. 13).
31. Leland, “Do the Right Thing,” 72 (see chap. 12, n. 19).
32. The Stud Brothers, “Prophets of Rage,” Melody Maker (July 9, 1988).
33. The Stud Brothers, “Black Power,” Melody Maker (May 28, 1988).
34. John Leland, “Armageddon in Effect,” Spin (September 1988), 48.
35. David Mills, “Professor Griff: ‘The Jews Are Wicked,’ ” Washington Times (May 22, 1989), E1.
36. Ibid., E1–E2.
37. Ibid., E2.
38. R. J. Smith, “The Enemy Within,” Village Voice (June 20, 1989).
39. Lewis Cole, “Def or Dumb?” Rolling Stone (October 19, 1989), 96.
40. R. J. Smith, “Bring the Goys,” Village Voice (June 27, 1989).
41. Chuck D, letter dated June 19, 1989; from the files of Bill Adler.
42. Armond White, “Bought. Can We Get a Witness?” City Sun (June 28–July 4, 1989),15.
43. Ibid.
44. Leland, “Do the Right Thing,” 100 (see chap. 12, n. 19).
45. John DeSantis, For The Color of His Skin: The Murder of Yusuf Hawkins and the Trial of Bensonhurst (New York: Pharos, 1991), 76.
46. Ibid., 117.
47. Claire Jean Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black-Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 128–129.
48. Pyong Gap Min, Caught in the Middle: Korean Communities in New York and Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 170–172.
49. “Boycott Public Enemy,” New York Post (August 20, 1989).
50. Richard Harrington, “Public Enemy’s Rap Record Stirs Jewish Protests,” Washington Post (December 27, 1989), D4.
51. Harry Allen, “Why Are The Media Getting Crazed over the Cress Theory?” draft press release (May 9, 1990); from the files of Bill Adler.
14. The Culture Assassins: Geography, Generation and Gangsta Rap.
1. Cross, It’s Not About a Salary, 201–202 (see chap. 10, n. 39).
2. Rennie Harris, interview by Rudy Corpuz (September 16, 2003).
3. Cross, It’s Not About a Salary, 102, 143 (see chap. 10, n. 39).
4. Alejandro A. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs” (master’s thesis, University of Southern California, May 1999), 8.
5. Cross, It’s Not About a Salary, 143 (see chap. 10, n. 39).
6. Terry McDermott, “Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics,” Los Angeles Times Magazine (April 14, 2002). Jonathan Gold, “N.W.A.: Hard Rap and Hype from the Streets of Compton,” Los Angeles Weekly (May 5–May 11, 1989), 17. Frank Owen, “Hanging Tough,” Spin (April 1990), 34.
7. George Jackson, Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson (New York: Bantam, 1970), 250.
8. Alexander Cockburn, “What Goes Around, Comes Around,” The Nation (June 1, 1992), 739.
9. J. Max Bond, “The Negro in Los Angeles” (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, June 1936), 12, 33. Keith E. Collins, Black Los Angeles: The Maturing of the Ghetto, 1940–1950 (Saratoga, Calif.: Century Twenty One Publishing, 1980), 13.
10. Bond, “The Negro in Los Angeles,” 12, 33. This man would find an ironic counterpart seventy years later in John Singleton’s Boyz N The Hood, in the fictional character of Furious Styles, a Black real estate agent struggling to keep his area from being gentrified by whites and overseas Asians.
11. Collins, Black Los Angeles, 20–22.
12. Ibid., 70.
13. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprisings and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo Press, 1997), 35.
14. This is according to the Athens Park Blood O.G. named Bone, quoted in the cover story, F.E.D.S. Magazine (no date), 78.
15. James Vigil, A Rainbow of Gangs (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 2002), 67.
16. This is according to the Crip O.G. named Red, in Uprising: Crips and Bloods Tell The Story of America’s Youth in the Crossfire, ed. Yusuf Jah and Sister Shah’Keyah (New York: Touchstone, 1997).
17. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs,” 74–75.
18. Richard Serrano, “Dreams of LAPD Class Become Tarnished,” Los Angeles Times (January 21, 1992), B1.
19. This argument has been advanced most forcefully by the scholar Greg Hise. Greg Hise, Magnetic Los Angeles (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
20. Horne, Fire This Time, 65.
21. Mike Davis, City of Quartz (New York: Verso, 1990), 297–298. Horne, Fire This Time, 99.
22. Horne, Fire This Time, 64–69.
23. Richard Serrano. “Dreams of LAPD Class Become Tarnished.”
24. Horne, Fire This Time, 91.
25. Daily Chronicle newspaper seen in The Fire This Time (Blacktop Films, 1993).
26. Odie Hawkins, Scars and Memories: The Story of a Life (Los Angeles: Holloway House, 1987), 125.
27. Davis, City of Quartz, 297.
28. F.E.D.S. Magazine, 79.
29. Ibid.
30. Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992), 118, 165. Jack Olsen, Last Man Standing: The Tragedy and Triumph of Geronimo Pratt (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 38.
31. Donald Bakeer, Crips: The Story of the L.A. Street Gang from 1971–1985 (Los Angeles: Precocious Publishing, 1987, 1992), 116.
32. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs,” 90.
33. Ibid., 90–93.
34. Godfather Jimel Barnes in Uprising, 152.
35. Bone in F.E.D.S. Magazine. Leon Bing, Do or Die (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 149–150. Godfather Jimel Barnes in Uprising, 151–152.
36. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs,” 91.
37. Davis, City of Quartz, 300.
38. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs,” 7, 97.
39. Ibid., 95.
40. Bone in F.E.D.S. Magazine, 82.
41. Alonso, “Territoriality Among African American Street Gangs,” 98.
42. Bettijane Levine, “An OG Tries to Make Things Right,” Los Angeles Times (November 24, 1991), E2.
43. Research Group on the Los Angeles Economy, The Widening Divide: Income Inequallity and Poverty in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: UCLA Urban Planning Program, 1989), 1.
44. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics and the Black Working Class (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 192.
45. Califo
rnia Legislature, Senate, Office of Research, The South-Central Los Angeles and Koreatown Riots: A Study of Civil Unrest (Sacramento: State Senate Office of Research, June 17, 1992), 3.
46. Sandy Banks, “Health Center A Vital Aid in Distressed Community,” Los Angeles Times (January 27, 1985), Metro sect., 1.
47. “Metro Digest: Local News in Brief,” Los Angeles Times (November 17, 1987), 2.
48. Michael Krikorian and Greg Krikorian, “Watts Truce Holds Even As Hopes Fade,” Los Angeles Times (May 18, 1997), B1.
49. Cross, It’s Not About a Salary, 197 (see chap. 10, n. 39).
50. John Glionna, “A Murder That Woke Up L.A.,” Los Angeles Times (January 30, 1998), A1. Sandy Banks, “Fate Leads Witnesses to Focal Point of Gang Strife,” Los Angeles Times (October 1, 1989).
51. Kenneth J. Garcia, “Residents Still Coping with Raid’s Effects. Police Gang Sweep Left Families Homeless,” Los Angeles Times (January 6, 1989), Metro sect., 1.
52. John L. Mitchell, “The Raid That Still Haunts L.A.,” Los Angeles Times (March 14, 2001), A1.
53. John A. Oswald, “LAPD to Investigate Raid Damage,” Los Angeles Times (August 5, 1988), Metro sect., 1.
54. Marc Cooper, “L.A.’s State of Siege: City of Angeles, Cops From Hell,” in Inside The L.A. Riots: What Really Happened and Why It Will Happen Again, ed. Don Hazen (San Francisco: Institute For Alternative Journalism, 1992), 15.
55. Bob Baker, “A Year After Westwood Killing, L.A. Outrage Makes Little Impact on Gang Epidemic,” Los Angeles Times (January 30, 1989), 1.
56. Cooper, “L.A.’s State of Siege,” 14. Bill Martinez, interview (September 18, 2003). (Martinez is a gang intervention trainer and former community youth gang services staffer.) Wendy E. Lane, “DA’s Report: Almost Half of L.A. County’s Young Black Males in Gangs,” Associated Press wire report (May 21, 1992).
57. Gregory Sandow, “What’s NWA All About? Anger, Yes. Violence, No,” Los Angeles Herald Examiner (July 16, 1989), E-1, E-10.
58. Dave Marsh and Phyllis Pollack, “Wanted for Attitude,” Village Voice (October 10. 1989), 33.
59. David Mills, “The Gangsta Rapper: Violent Hero or Negative Role Model?” The Source (December 1990).
60. Rob Marriott, James Bernard and Allen S. Gordon, “Reality Check,” The Source (June 1994), 64–65.
15. The Real Enemy: The Cultural Riot of Ice Cube’s Death Certificate.
1. Cheo Hodari Coker, “Down for Whatever,” The Source (February 1994).
2. Owen, “Hanging Tough,” 34 (see chap. 14, n. 6).
3. Ibid., 32, 34.
4. Terry McDermott. “Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics” (see chap. 14, n. 6).
5. Eric Ture Muhammad, “An Elegy for Khallid Abdul Muhammad” (March 2001). Available online at 360hiphop.com.
6. Angela Y. Davis, “Black Nationalism: The Sixties and the Nineties,” in Black Popular Culture, ed. Gina Dent (Seattle: Bay Press, 1992), 322.
7. Ibid., 327.
8. “A Conversation with Angela Davis and Ice Cube” (Priority Records promotional video, 1991). The original transcript for this 20-minute video (incorrectly dated July 29, 1992; the actual date is likely July 29, 1991) is from the archives of Bill Adler.
9. “A Conversation with Angela Davis and Ice Cube,” original transcript. (This exchange was also published in an abridged version in “Nappy Happy,” Transition 58 [1992], 181–182.)
10. Ibid., 30–31.
11. Elaine H. Kim, “Home Is Where the Han Is,” in Reading Rodney King, Reading Urban Uprising (New York: Routledge, 1993), 217, 255.
12. Paul Ong and Suzanne Hee, Losses in the Los Angeles Civil Unrest (Los Angeles: Center for Pacific Rim Studies, University of California, 1993).
13. Jube Shiver, “Poor Penalized as Food Chains Exit Inner City,” Los Angeles Times (January 2, 1989).
14. Larry Aubry, “Death and Violence: Unfortunate Equalizers,” Los Angeles Sentinel (October 17, 1991), 6A.
15. Seth Mydans, “Shooting Puts Focus on Korean-Black Frictions in Los Angeles,” Los Angeles Times (October 6, 1991), 20.
16. K. W. Lee, “The Haunting Prelude,” KoreAm Journal (April 2002), 27.
17. “Koreans Say Conflict is Economic, Not Racial,” Los Angeles Sentinel (October 17, 1991), 17A.
18. Ibid.
19. “A Conversation with Angela Davis and Ice Cube,” original transcript, 7–9.
20. “Cracked Ice,” The Economist 321, no. 7735 (November 30, 1991).
21. David Samuels, “The Rap on Rap,” New Republic (November 11, 1991), 29.
22. Editorial, Billboard (November 23, 1991).
23. James Bernard, “ ‘Death Certificate’ Gives Birth to Debate,” Billboard (December 7, 1991).
24. Quoted in Dennis Hunt, “Outrageous As He Wants to Be,” Los Angeles Times (November 3, 1991).
25. Ice Cube, promotional interview tape (Priority Records, 1991).
26. Lawrence Bobo, James Johnson, Melvin Oliver, James Sidanius and Camille Zubrinsky, “Public Opinion Before and After a Spring of Discontent,” Occasional Working Paper Series, 3 (Los Angeles: UCLA Center for the Study of Urban Poverty, September 1992).
27. Dong Suh, “The Source of Korean and African American Tensions,” Asian Week (February 21, 1992).
28. Chuck Phillips. “Wiesenthal Center Denounces Ice Cube’s Album.” Los Angeles Times. November 2, 1991.
29. Sophia Kyung Kim, “Chilling Fields: Ice Cube Rap,” Korea Times (November 11, 1991).
30. John Leland, “Cube on Thin Ice,” Newsweek (December 2, 1991), 69.
31. Richard Reyes Fruto, “KAGRO Puts Freeze on Ice Cube,” Korea Times (November 18, 1991).
32. Lynne Duke, “Rapper’s Number Chills Black-Korean Relations,” Washington Post (December 1, 1991).
33. Richard Reyes Fruto, “St. Ide’s Cans Ice Cube,” Korea Times (November 11, 1991).
34. Sophia Kyung Kim, “Ice Cube the Peacemaker,” Korea Times (May 4, 1992).
35. Ibid.
36. Lou Cannon, Official Negligence (New York: Times Books, 1997), 166.
LOOP 4. Stakes Is High: 1992–2001.
16. Gonna Work It Out: Peace and Rebellion in Los Angeles.
1. Judy Pasternak, “In the Crossfire: L.A.’s Gang Crisis,” Los Angeles Times (February 5, 1989), 1.
2. Raegan Kelly, “Watts Love: The Truce Is ON!” URB Magazine 3, no. 6 (1993), 42.
3. Jocelyn Stewart, “Civil Rights Groups out of Touch, Many Blacks Believe,” Los Angeles Times (August 31, 1992), A1.
4. Dollie Ryan, “Farrakhan Eulogizes Slain Muslim,” United Press International wire report (January 27, 1990).
5. “Nation of Islam Leader Tells Crowd: ‘Stop the Killing,’ ” Associated Press wire report (February 3, 1990).
6. Andrea Ford and Charisse Jones, “Respect Life, Farrakhan Asks L.A. Crowd,” Los Angeles Times (February 3, 1990), B1.
7. Beatriz Johnson Hernandez, “Searching for Inner-City Peace,” Third Force (June 1996),18.
8. Rich Connell, “Reaction Mixed in Boycott,” Los Angeles Times (February 22, 1989), B1. Jesse Katz, “Corrupting Power of Life on the Streets,” Los Angeles Times (May 15, 1994), A1.
9. Stephanie Chavez and Louis Sahagun, “Slaying by LAPD Becomes Rallying Point,” Los Angeles Times (January 5, 1992), B1.
10. Multi-Peace Treaty, signed April 29, 1994. The treaty, Sherrills explains, was agreed upon verbally, but not signed until the second anniversary of the rebellion in a formal ceremony at Imperial Courts. The treaty was signed by ex-gang representatives from Hacienda, Imperial Courts, Jordan Downs and Nickerson Gardens. Also see Jesse Katz and Andrea Ford, “Ex-Gang Members Look to Mideast for a Peace Plan,” Los Angeles Times (June 17, 1992), B1. Kelly, “Watts Love: The Truce Is ON!” 45.
11. Katz and Ford, “Ex-Gang Members Look to Mideast for a Peace Plan.”
12. Ibid.
13. Jeffrey Anderson, “Dealing with a Monster,” Los Angeles Weekly (January 30–February 5, 2004).
14. David Whitman, “The Untold Story of the L.A. Riot,” U.S. News and World Report (May 31, 1993), 34.
15. Cannon, Official Negligence, 319–320 (see chap. 15, n. 36).
16. Jim Crogan, “Riot Chronology,” in Inside The L.A. Riots, 35 (see chap. 14, n. 54).
17. Birth of a Nation: 4x29x92, directed by Matthew McDaniel (1994).
18. Cannon, Official Negligence, 322 (see chap. 15, n. 36).
19. Ibid., 324.
20. Ashley Dunn, “The Riots’ Enduring Wounds,” Los Angeles Times (August 18, 1992), A1. Robert Jablon, “51 Lives and Deaths in the City of Angels,” Associated Press wire report (May 14, 1992).
21. Cannon, Official Negligence, 328 (see chap. 15, n. 36).
22. Paul Lieberman, “ACLU Lawsuit Charges Riot Curfew Was Illegal,” Los Angeles Times (June 24, 1992), B1. Ashley Dunn, “Years of ‘2-Cent’ Insults Added Up to Rampage,” Los Angeles Times (May 7, 1992), A1.
23. Dunn, “Years of ‘2-Cent’ Insults Added Up to Rampage.”
24. Paul Ong and Suzanne Hee, Losses in the Los Angeles Civil Unrest: April 29–May 1, 1992 (Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Pacific Rim Studies, 1993), 12.
25. Dunn, “The Riots’ Enduring Wounds.”
26. State of California Emergency Medical Services Authority. Medical Care for the Injured: The Emergency Medical Response to the April 1992 Civil Disturbance (March 1993). EMSA #393-01. http://www.usc.edu/isd/archives/cityinstress/medical/table11.html
27. Ibid., http://www.usc.edu/isd/archives/cityinstress/medical/table02.html
28. Mike Davis, “Uprising and Repression In L.A.,” in Reading Rodney King Reading Urban Uprising, 142 (see chap. 15, n. 11).
29. Howard Rosenberg, “Medium’s Influence Sometimes Warps Our Sense of Reality,” Los Angeles Times (May 2, 1992), A8.
30. Davis, “Uprising and Repression In L.A.,” 145.
31. Mike Davis, “In L.A., Burning All Illusions,” The Nation (June 1, 1992), 743. “10 Years After the Riots: In Their Own Words,” Los Angeles Times Magazine (April 28, 2002).
32. Melvin Oliver, James H. Johnson Jr. and Walter C. Farrell Jr., “Anatomy of a Rebellion: A Political-Economic Analysis,” in Reading Rodney King Reading Urban Uprising, 121 (see chap. 15, n. 11).
33. Louis Sahagun and Patrick J. McDonnell, “Mother Prays, Burns Candles for Disabled Girl Missing in Riot,” Los Angeles Times (May 7, 1992).