ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my agent, Esmond Harmsworth, who encouraged me to write this book, helped me with the proposal, and read and commented on the entire manuscript. I also would like to thank TJ Kelleher and Tisse Takagi at Basic Books for doing so much to improve my manuscript. Thanks also to all the friends and colleagues who read and gave comments on some of the chapters, and in particular to Jennifer Beshel, who read and edited all of them. Finally, special thanks to Sian for her support and encouragement during the writing of this book, and for reading everything I wrote and making it better.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. Cacioppo and Patrick (2009).
2. Berne (1964).
3. One of the first systematic studies of social relationships in nonhuman primates is Robert Hinde’s Primate Social Relationships (1983). Hinde also wrote a book about human relationships from a comparative perspective (Hinde 1997).
4. Gould (1990).
5. For one of the first systematic discussions of this trend, see Jerison (1973).
6. The competitive chimpanzee society is described in detail in Jane Goodall’s book The Chimpanzees of Gombe (1986). The rhesus macaque is another primate species that lives in a highly competitive society (see Maestripieri 2007).
7. For a comprehensive discussion of sex differences in mate-seeking and mate attractiveness, see the book by evolutionary psychologist David Buss, The Evolution of Desire (1994).
8. Levitt and Dubner (2005).
9. Wrangham and Peterson (1996).
10. An excerpt from the next chapter was published as “Op-Ed: Why the Elevator Floor Is So Interesting,” in Wired, May 27, 2009, available at: http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/05/ftf-mastripieri.
CHAPTER 1: DILEMMAS IN THE ELEVATOR
1. Hall (1966).
2. For a discussion of the causes of aggression, including spatial proximity, in primates, see Higley (2003).
3. For more information about rhesus macaques, see Maestripieri (2007).
4. For more information about the bared-teeth display and the relaxing properties of grooming, see Maestripieri (1996) and Schino et al. (1988).
5. Mike Tomasello and his colleagues have written extensively about the importance of understanding and sharing goals and intentions and the differences between humans and other primates in their ability to engage in these processes; see, for example, Tomasello et al. (2005).
6. Taylor (2002).
7. Part of the experiment and its results are described in Schino et al. (1990).
8. The Prisoner’s Dilemma and the dynamics of cooperation are discussed extensively in Robert Axelrod’s book The Evolution of Cooperation (1984), as well as in Dugatkin (1997).
CHAPTER 2: THE OBSESSION WITH DOMINANCE
1. For a description of the dynamics of grooming between male chimpanzees, see Simpson (1973).
2. Trivers (1985) discusses the psychological and behavioral tactics used by parents and children when parent-offspring conflict arises.
3. Chikazawa et al. (1979).
4. Mock (2004).
5. For an example of research on dominance in children, see Pettit et al. (1990).
6. Packer (1977); Sapolsky (1992).
7. For a reissued edition of the English translation of Canetti’s 1935 novel, see Canetti (1984).
8. I extensively discuss primate dominance in my book Macachiavellian Intelligence (Maestripieri 2007).
9. Conniff (2003, 2005).
10. Wilson (1975).
11. On the debate about primate dominance, see Hinde (1972), Rowell (1974), Wilson (1975), Altmann (1981), Bernstein (1981), Hinde and Datta (1981), de Waal (1986), and Lewis (2002). Figure 2.2 was modified after Aureli and Whiten (2003).
12. John Maynard-Smith’s pioneering applications of game theory to animal conflicts and dominance are presented in Maynard-Smith and Price (1973) and Maynard-Smith and Parker (1976); for a more general discussion of the use of game theory in evolutionary biology and animal behavior, see Maynard-Smith (1982). For a discussion of behavioral displays and other signals, see Maynard-Smith and Harper (2003).
13. The relationship between dominance and neuroendocrine variables is discussed in Cummins (2005).
CHAPTER 3: WE ARE ALL MAFIOSI
1. D. Carlucci, G. Di Feo, and G. Foschini, “La Mafia dei baroni,” L’Espresso, January 27, 2007, available at: http://espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio/la-mafia-dei-baroni/1481927.
2. Bellow (2003).
3. The biological basis of nepotism, kin selection, was first formally discovered in the 1960s by British evolutionary biologist William Hamilton (1964a, 1964b).
4. I extensively discuss the nepotism of rhesus macaques in my book Macachiavellian Intelligence (Maestripieri 2007).
5. Bellow (2003) illustrates with many examples the ways in which people have extended the status of kin to strangers, and even to the gods, throughout human history.
6. The story involving Prof. Ezio Capizzano made the headlines of several Italian newspapers and online news sites in December 2001. Professor Capizzano was later acquitted of all charges and wrote a memoir detailing his sexual encounters with students.
7. The empirical test of the “infinite monkey theorem” at the Paignton Zoo in England was conducted in 2003 and reported by various online news sites, including the BBC News (“No Words to Describe Monkeys’ Play,” May 9, 2003, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3013959.stm).
8. Zingales (2012).
CHAPTER 4: CLIMBING THE LADDER
1. For a detailed discussion of the rhesus macaque population on Cayo Santiago, see my book Macachiavellian Intelligence (Maestripieri 2007). For studies of male migration in macaques, see Wheatley (1982), van Noordwijk and van Schaik (1985, 1988), and Dubuc et al. (2011).
2. For these and other examples of winner-take-all markets, see Frank (1996).
3. Van Schaik, Pandit, and Vogel (2006).
4. Manson (1998).
5. Higham’s observations are reported in Higham and Maestripieri (2010).
6. Van Schaik et al. (2006).
7. Betzig (1986).
CHAPTER 5: COOPERATE IN THE SPOTLIGHT, COMPETE IN THE DARK
1. Bateson, Nettle, and Roberts (2006).
2. Haley and Fessler (2005).
3. The biological predispositions to respond to eyes and eye gaze direction in animals and humans are discussed by Burnham and Hare (2007); see also Emery (2000).
4. For a study of reputation effects on generosity in a Dictator Game, see Servátka (2010).
5. Bshary and Grutter (2006).
6. Hardin (1968).
7. See Nowak and Sigmund (1998) for a study of indirect reciprocity through image scoring.
8. Andreoni and Petrie (2004); Rege and Telle (2004).
9. Burnham and Hare (2007).
10. Milinski, Semmann, and Krambeck (2002a); Semman, Krambeck, and Milinski (2004).
11. Andreoni and Petrie (2004); Milinski, Semmann, and Krambeck (2002b).
12. Alexander (1987), p. 100.
13. Piazza and Bering (2008).
14. Dunbar (1998).
15. Trivers (1971).
16. Studies showing punishment of defectors are summarized by Fehr and Fischbacher (2004); see also Egas and Riedl (2008).
17. Hauser (1992).
18. Further information about the 1977 blackout in New York City can be found at “New York City Blackout of 1977,” Wikipedia, available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_blackout_of_1977.
19. “Professor Said to Be Charged After 3 Are Killed in Alabama,” New York Times, February 10, 2010, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/13/us/13alabama.html.
20. Rothwell and Martyn (2000).
21. Many studies have found evidence of nepotistic, gender, and other biases in single-blind anonymous peer reviews, such as Lloyd (1990), Wenneras and Wold (1997), Link (1998), and Budden et al. (2008). For an alternative view of sex discrimination in the peer
review system, see Ceci and Williams (2011).
22. The archive is available at: www2.uah.es/jmc; see also Campanario (1998).
CHAPTER 6: THE ECONOMICS AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY OF LOVE
1. Becker (1981).
2. Frank (1988).
3. Ibid., p. 211.
4. Morris’s 1996 book Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America makes the case that Bill and Hillary Clinton have a strong “business” partnership.
5. Rostand (2003).
6. David Buss’s 1994 book The Evolution of Desire provides a comprehensive discussion of sexual desire and sexual attraction.
7. See Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005).
8. See Knott and Kahlenberg (2010) for orangutans and Tardif, Carson, and Gangaware (1990) for tamarins.
9. Fraley, Brumbaugh, and Marks (2005).
10. Konner and Worthman (1980).
11. Fisher (1989, 2004).
12. The results of the ISTAT study were reported in an article in the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, July 22, 2010.
13. Eastwick (2009).
14. Fraley and Shaver (1998).
15. Bowlby (1969); Maestripieri (2003).
16. For a popularized account of research on adult attachment, see Attached: The New Science of Adult Attachment and How It Can Help You Find—and Keep—Love (Levine and Heller 2010).
17. For research on testosterone and romantic relationships, see Ellison and Gray (2009) and Maestripieri et al. (2010). For the effects of fatherhood on testosterone, see Gettler et al. (2011).
18. Hazan and Zeifman (1999).
CHAPTER 7: TESTING THE BOND
1. Although there is some controversy over this issue, according to some dictionaries the words testicle and testify both derive from the Latin word testis, which means “witness.”
2. Packer (1977).
3. Whitham and Maestripieri (2003).
4. Smuts and Watanabe (1990); Smuts (2002).
5. Zahavi (1977).
6. Zahavi and Zahavi (1997).
7. The use of infants by male baboons during fights is extensively discussed by Stein (1984).
8. Miller (2009).
9. For further discussion of the parallels between the Handicap Principle and some principles of economics, see Bowles and Hammerstein (2003).
10. The story of this controversy is discussed in Zahavi (2003).
11. Skinner (1957); Chomsky (1959).
12. Wilson (1975).
13. Zahavi (2003), p. 862.
14. This work is described in Zahavi and Zahavi (1997).
15. Perry et al. (2003).
16. Michael Balter’s article about Susan Perry’s conference presentation, “Probing Culture’s Secrets: From Capuchin Monkeys to Children,” appeared in Science, July 16, 2010, pp. 266–267.
17. Manson (1999).
18. Smith et al. (2011).
19. Creel (1997).
20. Smuts (2002).
21. Zahavi and Zahavi (1997).
22. Buss (2000), p. 208.
23. Zahavi and Zahavi (1997).
CHAPTER 8: SHOPPING FOR PARTNERS IN THE BIOLOGICAL MARKET
1. An early synthesis of research on biological markets is provided in Economics in Nature: Social Dilemmas, Mate Choice, and Biological Markets (Noë, van Hooff, and Hammerstein 2001). Noë’s chapter in this book (Noë 2001), along with earlier papers by Noë and Hammerstein (1994, 1995), provide much of the conceptual background for this research approach as well as for this chapter.
2. Gangestad and Thornhill (1997).
3. Buss (1994), p. 93.
4. Becker (1981).
5. Grossbard-Shechtman (1993).
6. Pawlowski and Dunbar (1999).
7. Kurzban and Weeden (2005, 2007).
8. Gumert (2007).
9. Metz, Klump, and Friedl (2007).
10. Vahed (1998); Fromhage and Schneider (2005); Noë (2001).
11. Seyfarth (1976, 1977).
12. Smith, Memenis, and Holekamp (2007).
13. Fruteau et al. (2009).
14. Studies of the ants-butterfly larvae market are summarized and discussed in Noë (2001).
15. Bshary (2001); Bshary and Noë (2003); Bshary and Grutter (2006); Bshary and Côté (2008).
16. Adam (2010).
17. As an example of these studies, see Hauk (2001).
18. Just My Best Publishing Company, http://www.jmbpub.com/interest.htm.
19. Chiang (2010).
20. Noë (2007).
CHAPTER 9: THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
1. O’Brian (1994).
2. Burkhardt (2005).
3. Hitchens (1997).
4. Dawkins (2009).
5. Dennis Overbye, “Free Will: Now You Have It, Now You Don’t,” New York Times, January 2, 2007, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/02/science/02free.html.
6. Wegner (2002).
7. For an introduction to the discipline of evolutionary psychology, I recommend reading the online document “Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer” by Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, 1997, available at: http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html.
8. Tooby and Cosmides (1990); Cosmides and Tooby (2000).
9. Fessler and Haley (2003).
10. Cosmides and Tooby (2005).
11. Gigerenzer, Todd, and ABC Research Group (1999).
12. Noë (2006).
13. Tooby and Cosmides (1989, 1992).
14. Shubin (2008).
15. Rendall and Di Fiore (2006).
16. De Queiroz and Wimberger (1993).
17. The work of early ethologists is discussed in Burkhardt (2005).
18. Eisenberg (1963).
19. Carothers (1984).
20. Spuhler and Jorde (1975).
21. Di Fiore and Rendall (1994).
22. Van Hooff (1972).
23. Maestripieri (2003).
24. Hauser (2006).
25. Noë (2007).
26. Fessler and Haley (2003).
EPILOGUE
1. David Abel, “What He Left Behind: A 1,905-Page Suicide Note,” Boston Globe, September 27, 2010, available at: www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/09/27/book_details_motives_for_suicide_at_harvard/.
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