Collier, John, 22; Priestess at Delphi by, Plate IV
colonization, 59–63; Apollo as god of, 63; community identity and, 322n40; founding of Delphi, 38; oracle and advice on settlement, 86, 89, 97, 111, 132–33, 140, 188
columns: Aemilius Paullus dedication, 16, 190–91, 191, 196, 299; Aetolian two-column style dedications, 178; Agis of Sparta’s dedication, 141; of Apollo sanctuary, rebuilding, 278; of Athena sanctuary, rebuilding, 278, 292; Athenian omphalos dedication and, 160, 299; of Athenian treasury, 113; caryatid, 106–7; Gelon’s tripod, 123; graffiti inscribed on, 256; ionic, 224–25; Naxian lion dedication, 87, 147; omphalos and tripod dedication, 16; Plataean serpent dedication, 16, 121–22, 151, 240–41, 241, 295; Rhodian chariot of Helios dedication, 160; of running track, 224–26
Committee of Antiquaries, 262
community identity: architectural style and, 133; Attalids and cultural, 177; colonization and, 322n40; and cultural homogeneity among the Greeks, 77; dedications and definition of, 133, 167, 177, 288, 322n40, 340n18; of Delphi, 143; Hellanes (Greeks) as shared, 120; pan-Greek interaction at sanctuaries, 76–77; Persian War commemoration and collective “Hellanes,” 121–22; self-definition and, 54, 59
Constantine the Great, 240–41, 365n44
Constantius Chlorus, 240
construction at Delphi: during Aetolian control of Delphi, 176; Amphictyony and, 75, 92, 94, 103, 113, 146, 157, 159, 162; and architectural innovation, 342n44; contracts for, 93, 95, 100; domestic architecture, 45, 49, 51, 64, 74; during Domitian’s reign, 213; earliest structure at site, 41–42; financing of, 95–96, 100, 113, 156, 188, 199, 235, 331n18; after fire of 548, 94–98; legendary, 32; materials used in, 36, 87, 95, 100, 102, 106, 113, 224–26, 235, 246, 298 (see also reuse of materials under this heading); rebuilding projects, 94, 102–3, 146, 156, 157, 159, 162, 278, 292, 293, 340n16; reuse of materials, 102–3, 104, 246, 366n2; during Roman Imperial governance, 236; stadium, 235; stone quarries in area, 95, 235, 285; tamiai (treasurers) instituted for oversight, 163; temple, 87, 95, 100, 113, 246; terracing and site engineering, 45, 92–93, 102, 156, Plate II
consultation of the Pythia: ambiguity of responses, 28–30, 60, 84–85, 110, 114, 117, 120–21, 134, 136, 163–64, 179, 201, 210–11, 233, 314n58, 328n43; annual calendar and, 13; Athenian, 151, 198; colonization and, 61, 63, 86, 89, 97, 111, 132–33, 140, 188; communication of response to consultant, 19–20, 27–28; decline in, 183, 204–5, 221–22, 336n19; exemption from tax, 174; fabrication or appropriation of, 164, 168; “fake” oracles and, 55, 320n11; fees for, 16–17, 85, 141, 174, 210; “forced” prophecy, 20–21, 311n13; framing of questions for, 26–28, 83–84, 139, 142; as male privilege, 17; orientation of Pythia and consultant, 18; Plutarch on, 218; and political deliberation, 26–27, 29, 54–56; process of, 17–20, 360n46; promanteia and, 15; religious contexts of, 24–26; research and authentication of evidence, 55; Roman, 199–201, 204–5, 210–11, 214; sacrifice and, 15, 17–21, 364n33; “shopping” for favorable responses, 84, 142, 316n28; sources describing, 10–11; Sparta and, 130–31; temple architecture and, 18; verse responses to, 19, 27–28, 200, 218, 312n26; via tin inscriptions in sealed jars, 151–52
Convert, Henri, 271
Corcyra, 133
Core: sanctuary at Eleusis, 151–52
Corinth, 45–46, 47–48, 52, 56, 57, 66, 70; Chyselephantine statue dedication by, 328n36, Plate V; conflict with Sicyon, 325n13; petition to rename Cypselus’s treasury, 108; Rome and destruction of, 193; sanctuary at, 165; treasury of, 66, 108, 327n32, Plate II
Cornelius Scipion, P. (Scipio Africanus), 350n12
correctors (Roman), 215, 358n29
correspondence with Delphi: Claudius and, 208; Domitian and, 212–13; Gallienus and, 208, 364n37; Hadrian and, 223–24, 226; Trajan and, 215
Corycian cave, 53, 183, 234; archaeological excavation of, 283–84; artifacts found in, 43, 219, 345n14; as home of serpent, 35; inscriptions at, 167; modern visitors to, 301; photos of, 3, 14; Raikes and discovery of, 255; terra-cotta lamps found in, 219
Corycians, 86–87
Cos, 171
Coubertin, Pierre de, 272
craters, 125, 157
Craterus, niche of, 246
Crates, 148–49
Crete: consultation of the oracle by, 114; decline of influence at Delphi, 74; and founding of Delphi, 38; and purification of Apollo, 35; relationship with Delphi, 69; shields as dedications, 296; smaller offerings as dedications from, 68, 69
Crisa, 31–32, 71–72, 77, 324n1
Croesus of Lydia, 17, 26–30, 83, 97, 314n53, 328n43; consultation of the Pythia by, 28–29, 83–85, 328n43; dedications to Delphi, 84–85, 93–94; golden lion dedication, 84, 93, 151; mixing bowls dedicated by, 84, 93, 151, 198
Croton, 108; dedications from, 123
cultivation of sacred land, 71–72, 73, 75, 80, 151, 161, 169
cults: Antinous Propylaius at Delphi, 104, 224, 299; calendar of sacrifices at Delphi, 104; during Christian era, 242; Domitian and traditional religious observances, 212–13; evidence of, 48; gods worshipped at Delphi, 2, 103–4; Imperial cult of Rome at Delphi, 220; mingling of secular and sacred activities, 64–65, 74; oracle as authority on, 86, 89; provenance of dedicated objects, 49. See also Specific gods
cultural homogeneity among the Greeks, 77
currants, tax on export crop, 265–67
currency: Hadrian and Delphic coinage, 224
curses: of the Alcmaeonids, 98–99, 109; and cultivation of sacred land, 235; on looted Delphic treasures, 154, 170–71, 199; on the Phocians, 154; and violation of asylum, 98
Curtius, Ernst, 261
Cybele, 141
Cylon, 58, 80, 98, 325n14
Cyme, 97, 140
Cyprus, 67–68; dedications from, 110
Cypselus, 57, 66, 83, 108, 327n32
Cyrene, 60–61, 97; treasury dedicated by, 160, Plate II
Cyriac of Ancona, 249–51, 283
Cyrus, 85, 139
damiourgoi, government of Delphi by, 226, 239–40, 326n23, 365n43
dancers originally part of Acanthus column dedication, 166, 299
Daochus of Thessaly, 163, 166
Dardani, 199
Daux, Georges, 192–93, 275
de Boer, Jelle, 23, 284
dedications, 53; as advertisement of dedicators’ reputation, 121–23, 127–28, 132, 137, 142, 146, 174, 288; archaic style implemented in, 167–68; armor or shields as, 111, 112, 113; athletic victors honored with, 123, 188, 197, 214, 238, 300; burial of, 44, 88–90, 89, 123, 278–79, 279, 280, 297, 300, 328n36, Plate V; civic, in sanctuary, 162; and civic identity of donors, 108, 111, 167, 287–88; and community identity, 120, 133, 167, 177, 288, 322n40, 340; contemporary studies and records of, 167; by Delphians for member of their families, 235–36; destruction of, 151, 154–55; “dying” with dedicators, 146; as evidence of relationship of communities to Delphi, 49, 66–69; and favoritism of oracle, 82–85; as historical record, 122, 133–34, 137, 146, 147, 160, 167–68; inscriptions and rededication of monuments, 147; and interaction with sanctuary, 65–66; linked with fate of dedicators, 137; military victories commemorated with, 16, 120–23, 127–29, 129, 133, 137, 147, 156, 160, 167, 178, 190, 191, 193, 210–11, 219, 238–39, 293–95, 299–300; “monument war” and, 146–47; Nero and removal of, 210; omens seen at Delphi, 137, 165; painted embellishment of, 128; poets honored with, 197, 362n15; as political statements, 333n42; as propaganda, 189–90, 351n24; as property of the gods, 105, 195; as proxy for political control or preeminence, 129–32; refused by Delphi, 122, 335n8; reorganization and repositioning of, 173; repurposing of, 105, 131, 190, 212, 239, 297; as restitution for transgression, 81; “spatial monopolization” of sacred site and, 113, 127–28, 140–41, 146–47; “style” and attributed provenance of, 68, 86–87, 105; theft of, 170–71, 195, 199; updating of, 172–73, 174, 178. See also Specific donors or monuments
defense of Delphi: Aetolians and, 170–71, 180; Amphictyony and, 78, 150, 178; fortress-like walls construc
ted, 150, 249; against the Gauls, 170–71; lack of Delphian army, 161, 187, 196; landscape as natural, 3; neutrality and shared responsibility for, 72; Phocians and, 170–71; Sparta and, 131; supernatural, 116–18, 125–26, 170; vulnerability and, 70, 134, 196
Defradas, Jean, 62
De la Coste-Messeliere, Pierre, 183, 275–76, 276
Delian league, 122, 126
Deliyannis, Theodoros, 266–67
Delos, 136; excavation of, 263; sanctuary of Apollo at, 173
Delphi, 103, 134; abandonment of, 249; archeological evidence of cult practice at, 44; as the “center of the world,” 30, 36, 49, 86, 120, 122, 315 (see also omphalos); city’s role in management of sanctuary, 144, 159, 186–87, 238, 284, 286, 288–89, 326n23, 350n12, 357n13; civic government of, 326n23, 343n48; civic structures of, 143; as cosmopolitan community, 104–5, 184, 209; as cultural rather than financial power, 206; decline of, 193, 200–201, 235–36, 239–40; defense of, 142–45, 166, 187, 196, 199; disappearance of, 249; economic dependence on sanctuary, 143; founding of, 31–33, 38, 133–34; habitation of, 44–45, 94; Homeric Hymn to Apollo on origin of, 31–33; as information hub, 27–28, 38, 62, 218; internal conflict in, 148; landscape and setting of, 2–4, 291; meaning of name, 36; modern, 3, 300–301; neutrality or autonomy of, 65, 135–36, 186–87, 188, 215, 235, 286–87; oracle at (see Pythia); as “Panhellenic,” 65; and political rivalry between Athens and Sparta, 111, 134–35; political value of, 201–2; population of, 142–43, 208, 249; relationship with Amphictyony, 159, 186–87; Rome and, 184, 200, 235–36, 286–87; sacked by northern tribes, 199; strategic value of, 75, 134; territorial boundaries of, 186
Delphiens, 263
Delphus, 35–36
Demangel, Robert, 275
Demaratus of Sparta, 109, 111–12
Demeter: First Fruits dedication at sanctuary of Eleusis, 133; sanctuaries dedicated to, 77–78, 151–52, 159, 174
Demetrius, war of, 178
Demetrius Poliorcetes, 168
demigods, Delphi as worship site for, 103–4 democracy, 98, 109, 133
Demonax of Mantinea, 97
Demosthenes, 155, 160–61
Dempsey, T., 23
Déroche, Vincent, 247
Description of Greece (Pausanias), 233–34, 254
Dio Chrysostom, 214
Diodorus Siculus, 13, 72, 131–32, 151, 154, 170–71
Dionysius of Syracuse, 144–45
Dionysus: Delphi as cult site, 13, 18, 35, 36, 86, 104, 152–53, 197, 220–21, 313n43, 315n14, 317n34, 318n57, 329n47; Dionysiac guild of Athens, 194; sanctuary at Thebes, 178; sculpture on Temple of Apollo pediment, 153, 153–54; Thyades celebration in Parnassian mountains, 152, 220–21
divination. See oracles; Pythia
Dodona, 24, 310n2
Dolonchi of the Chersonesus, 99
dolphins, 32
Domitian, emperor of Rome, 211–12; dedication honoring, 213; and traditional religious observances, 212–13
dragon of Delphi, 32, 34
Dragoumis, Stephanos, 265
Dropion of Paeonia, 174
Drusilla, 207
earthquakes, 295; and collapse of walls, 145, 177; and disruption of oracle, 145, 147, 242–43; mudslide over “big dig” excavation, 277; protection of site from, 283; reconstruction after, 148; and relocation of Castri residents, 262–63; structures and dedications damaged by, 156, 212
Echecrates of Thessaly, 13
economics: archaeology as international business, 265–66; costs of reconstruction after fire, 95–96; currency, 77, 159, 159, 199; Delphi as cultural rather than financial power, 206; Delphi as resource poor site, 38; donations and support of Delphi, 156, 192; evidence of economic crisis in Greece, 148; fees or price of oracle consultation, 16–17, 85, 141, 174, 210; festivals and, 188; oracle as business, 33, 70, 85, 96–97, 143, 187, 360n46 (see also fees or price of oracle consultation under this heading); purchase of offering goods, 16–18; Pythian games as enterprise, 236–37; Roman financial administrators at Delphi, 215; and secular habitation of Delphi, 143; of slavery and manumissions, 355n58, 355n59; tax to consult oracle, 85; trade, 46–48, 52–53, 68
Egypt, 173, 176; control of Greek territories by, 184; support of Delphi by, 96
Elatea, 161
Eleusis, 161
Elgin, 256
Elis, 140
“E” (mysterious inscription), 203–4, 217–18
entryways into sacred space, 66, 103, 242, 246, 294, 347n28
Ephialtes, 120
Ephorus, 35, 72
Epidamnus, 133
Epidaurus, 165
epimeletai (overseers), 183, 203, 207, 356n1; Delphians as, 213
Epirus, 173; dedications by, 175, 177
Eponymous, 178
Etruscans, 123, 127
Euboea: pottery from, 53
Euchidas of Palatea, 119
Eudamus of Nicopolis, 207
Eudocus, 188
Eumeneia festival, 192, 220
Eumenes II of Pergamon, 185–86; dedication at Delphi, 188; monument erected honoring, 192; Perseus and attempted murder of, 189; relationship with Delphi, 187–88; as Roman ally, 192; statue of, location, 16
Eumenides (Aeschylus), 15
Euripides, 25, 34–35, 135, 136
Eurylochus, 72
Eurymedon, 128
Eusebius, 11, 242–43
Evans, Arthur, 43
Evans-Pritchard, Edward, 26
exegetai pythochrestoi (interpreters of sacred law and ritual), 81
feathers and beeswax, temple of, 36
festivals at Delphi, 152, 351n18; 20th century revival of, 277; adjustments to Delphic festival calendar, 173; Alcesippeia, 188, 220; Athenian Pythaïs, 194–95, 204, 299; Attaleia, 192, 220; Charila, 221; Dodekais, 204, 212–13; Eumeneia, 192, 220; Herois, 221; monthly, 220; Plutarch on religious calendar, 219–20; and reputation of Delphi, 287; Romaia, 187, 220, 350n14; Sebasta, 220; Septerion, 221; Soteria, 173, 175–76, 220, 348n41, 354n52; Theoxenia, 220. See also Pythian games
fines, 149–50, 154, 159, 196
fire: Athenian Pythaïs festival and, 194; Delphi as hearth of Greece, 119–20, 122; at Delphi extinguished by northern tribes, 199; and destruction at Delphi, 51, 64, 90, 93–94; reconstruction after fire of 548, 94–98; sacred hearth in Delphi, 15, 17, 19, 194, 312n26
First Macedonian War, 180
First Punic War, 175
First Sacred War, 71–74; Amphictyony and, 144–45; literary tradition and, 160
Flavius Aristotimus, T., 224
Flavius Constantius, 242
“forced” prophecy, 20–21, 311n13
Forrest, George, 62, 63
“fortune telling,” 30
Foucart, Paul, 263, 264, 266
Fountain spring, 262
Fourth Sacred War, 161–62
Frangos, Dimos, 260, 263, 264
fraud, oracle as, 22–23, 27–28
French School in Athens, 262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 269, 275, 277, 369n37, 372n34
Fufius Calenus, Q., 200, 355n60
Fulvius Nobilior, M., 187
Gaia, 33–35, 39, 41, 44, 87, 104, 132, 295; “Chapel of Gaia,” 68; Delphi as cult site, 102, 132, 295; Demeter, sanctuaries dedicated to, 77–78
Galba, 210
Galen, 232
Gallienus, 208, 238, 364n37
games. See athletic competitions
Gauls, invasion of, 170–71, 346n25
Gell, William, 253, 255; drawing of Castri by, 254
Gellius Menogenes, L., 240
Gelon of Gela, 114, 116, 122–23; dedications by, 151
geography of Delphi: aerial views, 2, 3; earthquakes, 145, 156, 170, 212, 242–44, 262, 340n15; and explanations for inspiration of the Pythia, 23–24, 242–43, 284; and isolation of Delphi, 38, 143; map of Delphi and immediate surroundings, xvi; pine trees planted, 277; research on, 373n36; rock falls, 275, 283, 292, Plate VIII. See also earthquakes
George I, King of Greece, 262
Gephyraei, 202
German Archaeological Institute, 261
Germany: attack on Delphi during W.W.II, 282
Giantomachy (Siphnian treasury), 107, 298
Giantomachy (Temple of Apollo), 102
glass, 68, 361n6
Glaucus, 85
goats, sacrifice of, 15, 20–21
gods worshipped at Delphi, 2, 103–4, 287. See also Specific gods
gold: Alexander I of Macedon, golden statue of, 122, 151; Croesus and dedications of, 83–84, 93, 151; “E,” 204, 217; lion, 84, 93, 151; mines of Siphnos, 105–6; on palm tree dedications, 121, 128, 137; Perseus, golden statue planned by, 190; tripod of Plataean serpent column, 121, 151, 228; vessels as dedications, 84, 175; vessels used in oracle consultation, 151–52
Gordian III, Emperor, 237, 238
Gorgias of Sicily, 142
Gortyn, 214
grammarian, dedication honoring, 214
Great Rhetra (Spartan constitution), 56
Greco-Turkish War, 272
Greek Archaeological Society, 258, 261–62, 263, 264; administration of Delphi site, 275
Greek Civil War (1947–49), 282
Guide de Delphes, 291
Guys, Pierre Augustin, 257
Gyges of Lydia, 58, 321n21
gymnasium, 157–59, 292; baths, library, and dining room constructed, 213–14; Christian church constructed on site, 292; construction on site of, 245–46; graffiti inscribed on columns, 256; location of, Plate I; reconstruction illustrating, 158; running track, 213, 224–25
gymnasium complex, 213–14
Hadrian, 215, 299; consultation of the oracle by, 224; and cult of Antinous Propylaius, 104, 224; and Delphi, 222, 223–28; and government of Delphi by damiourgoi, 226, 239–40; Panhellenion, 227–28, 234; statue of, 223–24, 242
Hale, first name, 284
Hamilton, Gavin, 252
Hamilton, George, Earl of Aberdeen, 255
Hamilton, William, 255
Heliodorus, 1–2, 6, 236
Helios, Rhodian statue of, location, 16, 160
Helladic periods, 43
Heracleia Pontice, 24, 86
Heracles, 74, 104, 108, 113, 298–99, 316n27, 320n8
Herculaneum, 252
Hermes: cult practices at Delphi, 154
Herodes Atticus, 229–30, 231, 235, 362n18 Herodotus, 18, 26–27, 56, 58, 60–61, 63; on Alcmaeonids, 98; on construction of temple, 100; consultations mentioned in, 85; on dedications, 87–88; on fire of 548 BC, 94; on Peisistratids, 99; on Persian Invasion, 116; on Siphnians, 105–6, 108
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