10. See Peter Grose, Allen Dulles. Spymaster. The Life and Times of the First Civilian Director of the CIA (London 2006; first published as Gentleman Spy. The Life of Allen Dulles, London 1995), pp. 145–255, for this part of the men’s careers.
11. Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles. Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in US Foreign Policy (Wilmington, Del. 1999), pp. 31–2.
12. Ibid., p. 32.
13. Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2: The President 1952–1969 (New York/London 1984), p. 21.
14. William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy 1945–1960. The Soul of Containment (Cambridge 2008), pp. 238–9.
15. Hughes, The Ordeal of Power, pp. 204–9.
16. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War. The Inside Story of an American Adversary (New York 2006), pp. 149–52.
17. Peter Hahn, ‘The United States and Israel in the Eisenhower Era: The “Special Relationship” Revisited’, in Kathryn Statler and Andrew Johns (eds), The Eisenhower Administration, the Third World, and the Globalization of the Cold War (Oxford 2006), pp. 225–38.
18. Imboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, pp. 289ff.
19. Colin Dueck, Hard Line. The Republican Party and US Foreign Policy since World War II (Princeton 2010), p. 89. Dueck’s outstanding book is highly recommended for what follows.
20. George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower. US Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford 2008), p. 647.
21. L. Douglas Keeney, 15 Minutes. General Curtis LeMay and the Countdown to Nuclear Annihilation (New York 2011), pp. 89–90.
22. Ibid., pp. 112–13.
23. ‘Weather Control as a Cold War Weapon’, Smithsonian Museum Magazine, 5 December 2011, on blogs.smithsonianmag.com.
24. Robert A. Strong, ‘Eisenhower and Arms Control’, in Richard Malamson and David Mayers (eds), Reevaluating Eisenhower. American Foreign Policy in the Fifties (Urbana, Ill. 1989), p. 243.
25. Dueck, Hard Line, p. 97.
26. Saki Dockrill, Eisenhower’s New-Look National Security Policy 1953–61 (London 1996), p. 23, is excellent on the NSC.
27. Dueck, Hard Line, pp. 89–90.
28. Cody M. Brown, The National Security Council. A Legal History of the President’s Most Powerful Advisers (Washington, DC 2008), pp. 17ff.
29. Immerman, John Foster Dulles. Piety, Pragmatism, and Power, pp. 59–61.
30. John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan. An American Life (London 2012), pp. 485–8.
31. Kenneth Osgood, ‘Words and Deeds: Race, Colonialism, and Eisenhower’s Propaganda War in the Third World’, in Statler and Johns (eds), The Eisenhower Administration, pp. 3–16.
32. See the brilliant study by Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency. American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945–1989 (Cambridge 2008), pp. 107–8.
33. See Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer. How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, Mass. 2008), pp. 106–8, and David Caute’s important The Dancer Defects. The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford 2003), which corrects Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London 1999). Interested readers might also consult Peter Coleman’s The Liberal Conspiracy. The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (New York 1989), which I strongly recommend.
34. Dominic Sandbrook, Never Had It So Good. A History of Britain from Suez to the Beatles (London 2005), especially pp. 48–61, is exceptionally astute on these issues.
35. Roy Jenkins, Churchill (London 2001), pp. 836–42.
36. Evelyn Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez. Diaries 1951–56 (London 1986), entry dated 3 December 1953, p. 112 .
37. Jenkins, Churchill, p. 868, makes this point.
38. David Carlton, Anthony Eden. A Biography (London 1981), pp. 327–8.
39. Peter Hennessy, Having It So Good. Britain in the Fifties (London 2006), p. 357. Hennessy is a remarkably well-informed guide to the high politics of this period.
40. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, entry dated 19 November 1952, p. 54.
41. John Colville, The Fringes of Power. Downing Street Diaries 1939–1955 (London 2004), entry dated 31 December 1953, p. 616.
42. Ibid., entry dated 7 January 1953, p. 620.
43. Robert H. Ferrell (ed.), The Eisenhower Diaries (New York 1981), entry dated 6 January 1953, pp. 222–3.
44. Colville, The Fringes of Power, entry dated 4 December 1953, p. 639.
45. Hennessy, Having It So Good, pp. 389ff, for a very unboring discussion of British relations with Europe.
46. Carlton, Anthony Eden, p. 337.
47. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, p. 21.
48. Carlton, Anthony Eden, pp. 340–4.
49. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, entries dated 30 April–2 May 1954, pp. 185–6.
50. Donald Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull. America in Britain’s Place 1900–1975 (Cambridge 1984), p. 130.
51. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, entry dated 4 May 1954, p. 190.
52. Hennessy, Having It So Good, pp. 165ff, and David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb. The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956 (New Haven, Conn. 1994), pp. 314–17.
53. Hennessy, Having It So Good, pp. 341–56.
54. Peter Catterall (ed.), The Macmillan Diaries. The Cabinet Years 1950–1957 (London 2003), entry dated 14 March 1955, pp. 405–6, for the crucial meeting.
55. D. R. Thorpe, ‘Anthony Eden’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition, pp. 1–28.
56. Hennessy, Having It So Good, especially p. 375.
57. Christopher de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia. Muhammad Mossadegh and a Very British Coup (London 2012), pp. 150–7, charts these events very well.
58. James Bamberg, ‘William Milligan Fraser’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition.
59. For insights into Mossadeq see Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet. Religion and Politics in Iran (Oxford 2005), pp. 115ff.
60. Manucher Farmanfarmaian and Roxane Farmanfarmaian, Blood & Oil. A Prince’s Memoir of Iran, from the Shah to the Ayatollah (New York 2005), pp. 228ff.
61. Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men. An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York 2008), pp. 96–7.
62. Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 173.
63. Ibid., pp. 178–80.
64. Wm Roger Louis, ‘Musaddiq, Oil, and the Dilemmas of British Imperialism’, in his Ends of British Imperialism. The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization (London 2006), pp. 758–60, is excellent on these aspects of the crisis.
65. Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 184–5.
66. Stephen Dorril, MI6. Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty’s Secret Intelligence Service (New York 2000), pp. 586–8.
67. H. W. Brands, Inside the Cold War. Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire 1918–1961 (New York 1991), pp. 253ff.
68. C. M. Woodhouse, Something Ventured. The Autobiography of C. M. Woodhouse (London 1982), pp. 125–6.
69. Richard Clegg, ‘Christopher Montague Woodhouse (Baron Terrington)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition, and Woodhouse’s memoir Something Ventured.
70. Miles Copeland, The Game Player. Confessions of the CIA’s Original Political Operative (London 1989), pp. 187–91. When Copeland understates his role in Iran, alarm bells should ring.
71. Donald Wilber (pseudonym?), ‘Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran: November 1952–August 1953’, CIA Clandestine Service History, p. 7. The original is dated March 1954. The electronic version available at http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html continues to evolve, with heavily redacted parts gradually revealed. (Hereafter CIA History).
72. Brands, Inside the Cold War, pp. 281–3.
73. CIA History
, pp. 9–10.
74. Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 226–30.
75. Grose, Allen Dulles, pp. 266–7.
76. CIA History, p. 37.
77. Ibid., pp. 73–4, on the role of radio.
78. Dorril, MI6, p. 596.
79. Brands, Inside the Cold War, p. 237.
10: Hungary and Suez
1. All these biographical details are from William Taubman’s gripping Khrushchev. The Man and his Era (New York 2003), pp. 18ff.
2. Jonathan Haslam, Russia’s Cold War. From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall (New Haven, Conn. 2011), p. 148.
3. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War. The Inside Story of an American Adversary (New York 2006), pp. 25ff.
4. Vojtech Mastny, ‘Soviet Foreign Policy 1953–1962’, in Melvyn Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (eds), The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. 1: Origins (Cambridge 2010), p. 315
5. Robert Service, Comrades. Communism. A World History (London 2007), p. 313.
6. Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 236ff.
7. Arkady Shevchenko, Breaking with Moscow (New York 1985), pp. 78–9. This memoir of a high-ranking defector is excellent on conditions of service for Soviet diplomats.
8. Ibid., p. 82.
9. Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, p. 58.
10. Service, Comrades, p. 319.
11. Ibid., pp. 290–4.
12. Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes. The History of the CIA (London 2007), p. 129.
13. Haslam, Russia’s Cold War, p. 171.
14. Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, pp. 178 –82.
15. Shu Guang Zhang, ‘The Sino-Soviet Alliance and the Cold War in Asia 1954–1962’, in Leffler and Westad (eds), Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. 1, p. 364.
16. Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt 1945–1956. Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC 1991), p. 213.
17. Eugene Rogan, The Arabs. A History (London 2009), pp. 123–32, is excellent on the Urabi revolt.
18. The essential issues are well described by Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire. The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1968 (Cambridge 2006), pp. 221ff.
19. Keith Kyle, Suez. Britain’s End of Empire in the Middle East (London 1991, revised edn 2003), p. 40.
20. Wm Roger Louis, ‘Prelude to Suez: Churchill and Egypt’, in Wm Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism. The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization (London 2006), p. 612.
21. Lord Moran, Winston Churchill. The Struggle for Survival 1940–1965 (London 1966), entry dated 10 January 1952, p. 362.
22. Louis, Ends of British Imperialism, p. 609.
23. Robert Stephens, Nasser. A Political Biography (London 1971), pp. 101–8.
24. Miles Copeland, The Game Player. Confessions of the CIA’s Original Political Operative (London 1989), pp. 142ff.
25. James Jankowski, A Short History of Egypt (Oxford 2000), pp. 136 –7.
26. Stephens, Nasser, pp. 122–37.
27. Eden memo dated 16 February 1953 in John Kent (ed.), Egypt and the Defence of the Middle East, British Documents on the End of Empire Project (London, 1998), part 2, no. 361, pp. 563–4.
28. Evelyn Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez. Diaries 1951–56 (London 1986), p. 75.
29. Louis, ‘Prelude to Suez’, pp. 617–21.
30. Peter Hahn, ‘The United States and Israel in the Eisenhower Era: The “Special Relationship” Revealed’, in Kathryn Statler and Andrew Johns (eds), The Eisenhower Administration, the Third World, and the Globalization of the Cold War (Oxford 2006), pp. 230–5.
31. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, p. 231.
32. Stephens, Nasser, p. 142.
33. Humphrey Trevelyan, The Middle East in Revolution (London 1970), pp. 86ff.
34. Kyle, Suez, pp. 60–1.
35. Tony Walker and Andrew Gowers, Arafat. The Biography (London 2003), pp. 12–19.
36. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, p. 159.
37. Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations. The Amorality of Power Politics (New York 1969), pp. 157–60.
38. Kyle, Suez, pp. 78–80.
39. D. R. Thorpe, Supermac. The Life of Harold Macmillan (London 2010), p. 332.
40. Copeland, The Game Player, pp. 165–6.
41. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, p. 232.
42. Jonathan Pearson, Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis. Reluctant Gamble (Basingstoke 2003), pp. 112–15.
43. Ibid., pp. 60ff.
44. David Carlton, Anthony Eden (London 1986), p. 412.
45. Thorpe, Supermac, pp. 344–7.
46. Pearson, Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis, pp. 140–1.
47. Ann Lane, ‘Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition, pp. 1–4.
48. Pearson, Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis, pp. 156–7.
49. Kyle, Suez, p. 331.
50. Carlton, Anthony Eden, pp. 435–41, and Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, pp. 229–30.
51. Peter Grose, Allen Dulles. Spymaster. The Life and Times of the First Civilian Director of the CIA (London 2006; first published as Gentleman Spy. The Life of Allen Dulles, London 1995), pp. 434–5.
52. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, p. 231.
53. Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, p. 136.
54. Kyle, Suez, p. 467.
55. Thorpe, Supermac, p. 364.
56. Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire 1781–1997 (London 2007), p. 496.
57. Carlton, Anthony Eden, pp. 460–1.
58. Rogan, The Arabs, p. 304.
11: With Us or against Us: The Sub-Continent
1. Andreas Hilger, ‘The Soviet Union and India: The Years of Late Stalinism’, Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security (September 2008), pp. 1–5.
2. Robert McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery. The United States, India and Pakistan (New York 1994), p. 46.
3. Kwasi Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire. Britain’s Legacies in the Modern World (London 2011), pp. 89ff.
4. H. W. Brands, Inside the Cold War. Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire 1918–1961 (Oxford 1991), pp. 198–9.
5. Judith Brown, Nehru. A Political Life (New Haven, Conn. 2003), p. 236.
6. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery, pp. 16–17.
7. C. L. Sulzberger, A Long Row of Candles. Memoirs and Diaries 1934–1954 (Toronto 1969), entry dated 29 April 1950, p. 548.
8. Andrew Rotter, Comrades at Odds. The United States and India 1947–1964 (Ithaca, NY 2000), p. 19.
9. Dennis Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000. Disenchanted Allies (Washington, DC 2001), pp. 27–31 and 38–42.
10. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery, p. 56.
11. Brands, Inside the Cold War, pp. 211–23.
12. See the brilliant account by the contemporary Times journalist Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (London 1970), pp. 126–7.
13. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, p. 18.
14. George McGhee, Envoy to the Middle World. Adventures in Diplomacy (New York 1983), p. 97.
15. Sulzberger, A Long Row of Candles, entry dated 22 April 1950, p. 541.
16. Rotter, Comrades at Odds, pp. 232–3.
17. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery, pp. 131ff.
18. Ibid., p. 211.
19. Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston 1980), p. 504.
20. Iftikhar Malik, The History of Pakistan (Westport, Conn. 2008), pp. 129ff.
21. Maxwell, India’s China War, pp. 148–9.
22. Brown, Nehru, p. 260.
23. K. M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Colombo 2005), pp. 624–5
.
24. Maxwell, India’s China War, pp. 395–9.
25. Brown, Nehru, pp. 318ff, is brilliant on this conflict; Peter Worthington, ‘War in the Clouds’, The Indian Quarterly, Vol. 1 (2012), p. 115.
26. Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 475.
12: Losing by Winning: Algeria
1. Jacques Valette, La Guerre d’Algérie des Messalistes 1954–1962 (Paris 2001), pp. 23–6.
2. Robert Merle, Ben Bella (London 1967), pp. 68–94.
3. Anthony Clayton, The Wars of French Decolonization (London 1994), pp. 111–12.
4. Edward Behr, The Algerian Problem (London 1961), pp. 189–92.
5. ‘Au Peuple Algérien’ issued 31 October 1954, in Mohammed Harbi and Gilbert Meynier (eds), Le FLN. Documents et histoire 1954–1962 (Paris 2004), pp. 36–8.
6. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace. Algeria 1954–1962 (London 1977, reprinted New York 2006), pp. 105ff.
7. Behr, The Algerian Problem, p. 76.
8. Olivier Todd, Albert Camus. A Life (New York 1997), p. 331.
9. Frank Giles, The Locust Years. The Story of the Fourth French Republic 1946–1958 (London 1991), pp. 254ff.
10. Horne, A Savage War of Peace, p. 123.
11. Ted Morgan, My Battle of Algiers. A Memoir (New York 2005), pp. 107–8.
12. Giles, The Locust Years, pp. 267ff, and more generally Martin Thomas, ‘Algeria’s Violent Struggle for Independence’, in Martin Thomas, Bob Moore and L. J. Butler, Crises of Empire. Decolonisation and Europe’s Imperial States 1918–1975 (London 2008), pp. 228ff.
13. John Nagl, Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife. Counterinsurgency Lessons from Malaya to Vietnam (Chicago 2005) is an interesting examination of institutional amnesia and the military learning process.
14. David Galula, Pacification in Algeria 1956–1958 (Santa Monica, Calif. 2006).
15. ‘General Marcel Bigeard’ obituary Daily Telegraph online dated 20 June 2010.
16. Morgan, My Battle of Algiers, pp. 111–12.
17. Paul Aussaresses, The Battle of the Casbah. Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria 1955–1957 (New York 2002), pp. 132–41.
18. See George J. Andreopoulos, ‘The Age of National Liberation Movements’, in Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos and Mark R. Shulman (eds), The Laws of War. Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven, Conn. 1994), especially pp. 203–9.
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