13. G. Jérome, “Les milices d’autoprotection de la communauté allemande de Pomérélie, Posnanie et Silésie polonaise (1939–1940),” Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains 41:163 (1991): 58.
14. A. Hitler, Hitler’s Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, ed. G. L. Weinberg (New York: Enigma, 2003), p. 53.
15. As Michael Burleigh points out, in contrast to the stock image in the democratic countries of Nazi Germany as a totalitarian state running with robotic efficiency, its “government was characterised by multi-centred incoherence, with a war of all against all, bordering on chaos.” M. Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 2000), p. 156.
16. L. de Jong, The German Fifth Column in the Second World War (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1956), pp. 39–47.
17. See T. Chinciński, “Niemiecka dywersja na Pomorzu w 1939 roku,” in T. Chinciński and P. Machcewicz, eds., Bydgoszcz 3–4 września 1939: Studia i dokumenty (Warsaw: Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, 2008): 170–204.
18. Jansen and Weckbecker, Der “Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz” in Polen, pp. 19, 26–7.
19. M. Phayer, “Pius XII and the Genocides of Polish Catholics and Polish Jews During the Second World War,” Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte 15:1 (January 2002): 250.
20. Most Western historians put the number of German victims at around four hundred, and express doubt as to whether the precipitating factor was anything other than panic among the understandably jittery Polish troops. In all significant respects, the Bydgoszcz episode conforms closely to the pattern of similar panics leading to massacres by German forces advancing into Belgium and France in the first days of the Great War. See J. Horne and A. Kramer, German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp. 10–78). For a compilation of the most recent Polish scholarship on the episode, which considers German saboteurs and “diversionists” to have played a significant role, see Chinciński and Machcewicz, Bydgoszcz 3–4 września 1939.
21. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, p. 203.
22. See A. V. Prusin, The Lands Between: Conflict in the East European Borderlands, 1870–1992 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 128–9.
23. Jérome, “Les milices d’autoprotection,” 58.
24. Jansen and Weckbecker, Der “Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz” in Polen, p. 28.
25. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, pp. 68–72.
26. P. R. Black, “Rehearsal for “Reinhard”? Odilo Globocnik and the Lublin Selbstschutz,” Central European History 25:2 (Spring 1992): 204–226.
27. Jérome, “Les milices d’autoprotection,” 65–6.
28. See N. S. Lebedeva, “The Deportation of the Polish Population to the USSR, 1939–41,” Journal of Communist and Transition Politics 16:1–2 (March 2000): 28–45.
29. See D. Crowe, “Germany and the Baltic Question in Latvia 1939–1940,” East European Quarterly 26:3 (Autumn 1992): 371–389.
30. Schechtman, European Population Transfers 1939–1945, p. 125.
31. G. E. Schafft, From Racism to Genocide: Anthropology in the Third Reich (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), p. 135.
32. Schechtman, European Population Transfers 1939–1945, p. 161.
33. H. Sommer, Völkerwanderung im 20. Jahrhundert: Die grosse Heimkehr der Volksdeutschen ins Reich (Berlin: Wilhelm Limpert-Verlag, 1940), pp. 3–4.
34. A. C. Bramwell, “The Re-Settlement of Ethnic Germans, 1939–41,” in A. C. Bram-well, ed., Refugees in the Age of Total War (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 122.
35. Quoted in H. S. Levine, “Local Authority and the SS State: The Conflict over Population Policy in Danzig–West Prussia, 1939–1945,” Central European History 2:4 (December 1969): 345–6.
36. See P. łossowski, “The Resettlements of Germans from Lithuania During World War II,” Acta Poloniae historica 93 (2006): 121–142.
37. See G. Aly, “Final Solution”: Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews (London: Arnold, 1999), pp. 97–8, 108–9.
38. C. Epstein, Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 172.
39. Quoted in Aly, “Final Solution,” p. 62.
40. C. R. Browning with J. Matthäus, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), p. 66.
41. Quoted in E. Harvey, Women and the Nazi East: Agents and Witnesses of Germanization (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 155.
42. M. Maschmann, Fazit: Kein Rechtfertigungsversuch (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, 1964), pp. 121–125.
43. Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, pp. 93–4.
44. Quoted in L. Rees, The Nazis: A Warning from History (London: BBC Books, 1997), p. 138.
45. S. Bannister, I Lived Under Hitler: An Englishwoman’s Story (London: Rockliff, 1957), p. 92.
46. N. J. W. Goda, “Black Marks: Hitler’s Bribery of his Senior Officers During World War II,” Journal of Modern History 72 (2002): 447.
47. Harvey, Women and the Nazi East, p. 165.
48. P. Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 171.
49. Harvey, Women and the Nazi East, p. 157.
50. Bramwell, “The Re-Settlement of Ethnic Germans,” pp. 126–7.
51. D. L. Bergen, “The ‘Volksdeutschen’ of Eastern Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust: Constructed Ethnicity, Real Genocide,” Yearbook of European Studies 13 (1999): 70–93. See also M. Gilbert, The Boys: The Story of 732 Young Concentration Camp Survivors (New York: Holt, 1998), p. 64.
52. See below, pp. 69–70.
53. Bergen, “The ‘Volksdeutschen’ of Eastern Europe,” p. 73.
54. C. Bryant, “Either German or Czech: Fixing Nationality in Bohemia and Moravia, 1939–1946,” Slavic Review 61:4 (Winter 2002), p. 691.
55. Bergen, “The ‘Volksdeutschen’ of Eastern Europe,” p. 74.
56. L. Olejnik, Zdrajcy narodu? Losy volksdeutschów w Polsce po II wojnie światowej (Warsaw: Trio, 2006), pp. 120–121, 146; J. Grabowski and Z. R. Grabowski, “Germans in the Eyes of the Germans: The Ciechanów District, 1939–1945,” Contemporary European History 13:1 (February 2004): 28.
57. Bramwell, “The Re-Settlement of Ethnic Germans,” p. 129.
58. Z. Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 239–40 (entry of January 28, 1943).
59. M. J. Chodakiewicz, Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2004), p. 162 n. 30.
60. Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, pp. 230–1 (entries of December 10 and 13, 1942).
61. Bryant, “Either German or Czech,” p. 689.
62. Quoted in I. Heinemann, “‘Another Type of Perpetrator’: The SS Racial Experts and Forced Population Movements in the Occupied Regions,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 15:3 (Winter 2001): 394.
63. Quoted in Schafft, From Racism to Genocide, p. 135.
64. Bergen, “The ‘Volksdeutschen’ of Eastern Europe,” p. 82.
65. Rees, The Nazis, p. 142.
66. Harvey, Women and the Nazi East, p. 151.
67. D. L. Bergen, “The Volksdeutsche of Eastern Europe and the Collapse of the Nazi Empire, 1944–1945,” in A. E. Steinweis and D. E. Rogers, eds., The Impact of Nazism: New Perspectives on the Third Reich and Its Legacy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), p. 106.
68. Grabowski and Grabowski, “Germans in the Eyes of the Germans,” p. 33.
69. Harvey, Women and the Nazi East, pp. 173, 164.
70. Bryant, “Fixing Nationality in Bohemia and Moravia,” p. 695.
71. W. Lower, “Hitler’s ‘Garden of Eden’ in Ukraine: Nazi Colonialism, Volksdeutsche, and the Holocaust, 1941–1944,” in J. Petropoulos and J. K. Roth, eds., Gray Zones: Ambiguity and Compromise in the Holocaust and
Its Aftermath (Oxford: Berghahn, 2006), p. 194.
72. M. Hastings, Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945 (New York: Knopf, 2004), p. 408.
73. See, e.g., N. G. Papp, “The German Minority Between the Two World Wars: Loyal Subjects or Suppressed Citizens?” East European Quarterly 22:4 (Winter 1988): 495–514.
74. Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich, p. 171.
75. Aly, “Final Solution,” p. 126.
76. V. O. Lumans, “A Reassessment of the Presumed Fifth Column Role of the German National Minorities of Europe,” in J. K. Burton and C. W. White, eds., Essays in European History: 1988–89, vol. 2 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1996), p. 201.
77. Quoted in Bergen, “The ‘Volksdeutschen’ of Eastern Europe,” p. 82.
78. Bramwell, “The Re-Settlement of Ethnic Germans, 1939–41,” p. 126.
79. Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, pp. 302, 333 (entries of February 15 and June 8, 1944).
80. E. Schmaltz, “The ‘Long Trek’: The SS Population Transfer of Ukrainian Germans to the Polish Warthegau and Its Consequences, 1943–1944,” Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia 31:3 (Autumn 2008): 1–23.
81. For a representative example, see “W sprawie ‘Volksdeutschów,’” Gazeta Lubelska, October 10, 1944, quoted in Olejnik, Zdrajcy narodu? pp. 69–70.
CHAPTER 3. THE SCHEME
1. Estimates of the number of people displaced during the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947, once thought to exceed 20 million, have now been revised downward to approximately half that figure. See S. Wolpert, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 1; Y. Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), p. 6.
2. J. M. Scott, “Exile and the Self-Understanding of Diaspora Jews in the Greco-Roman Period,” in J. M. Scott, ed., Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997), p. 202.
3. M. Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars: The Struggle for a Nation’s Soul, 1500–2000 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), p. 145.
4. P. Lovejoy, “The Slave Trade as Enforced Migration in the Central Sudan of West Africa,” in R. Bessel and C. B. Haake, eds., Removing Peoples: Forced Removal in the Modern World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 156.
5. P. C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 333.
6. Bessel and Haake, Removing People, p. 3.
7. C. Carmichael, Genocide Before the Holocaust (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 24–26.
8. D. Bloxham, “The Great Unweaving: The Removal of Peoples in Europe, 1875–1949,” in Bessel and Haake, Removing Peoples, pp. 192–3.
9. M. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe (New York: Penguin, 2008), p. 39.
10. C. Grohmann, “From Lothringen to Lorraine: Expulsion and Voluntary Repatriation,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 16:3 (Autumn 2005): 571–587.
11. G. Jenkins, Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East? (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 92.
12. E. Kontogiorgi, “Economic Consequences Following Refugee Settlement in Greek Macedonia, 1923–1932,” in R. Hirschon, ed., Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey (New York: Berghahn, 2003), p. 74.
13. R. Hirschon, “The Consequences of the Lausanne Conference: An Overview,” in Hirschon, Crossing the Aegean, p. 17.
14. Quoted in E. Kontogiorgi, Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Rural Settlement of Refugees 1922–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 65.
15. New English Weekly, January 18, 1945.
16. M. Frank, Expelling the Germans: British Opinion and Post-1945 Population Transfer in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 25–29.
17. Henderson to William Strang, August 25, 1939, FO 371/23027.
18. Quoted in C. Ponting, Churchill (London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1994), p. 652.
19. M. Kramer, “Introduction,” in P. Ther and A. Siljak, eds., Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), p. 6.
20. Foreign Research and Press Service, “The Transfer of German Populations (With Notes on the Relevant Evidence from Previous Exchanges and Transfers),” February 13, 1942, FO 371/30930.
21. F. J. Harbutt, Yalta 1945: Europe and America at the Crossroads (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 144.
22. “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the Transfer of German Populations,” p. 8, A.P.W. (44) 34, May 12, 1945, CAB 121/85.
23. Ibid., pp. 2–3.
24. Minute by Sargent, October 28, 1943, quoted in D. Brandes, Der Weg zur Vertreibung: Pläne und Entscheidungen zum “Transfer” der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei und aus Polen (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2001), pp. 262–3; “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee,” p. 4.
25. “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee,” p. 22.
26. Ibid., p. 3.
27. Ibid., p. 19.
28. Ibid., p. 4.
29. Ibid., p. 27.
30. Ibid., p. 30.
31. Armistice and Post-War Committee minutes, 10th meeting, July 20, 1944, CAB 121/85.
32. R. Law, “Food Production, Land Settlement and Large Estates in Germany, and the Problem of the Transferred Populations,” December 15, 1944, A.P.W. (44) 125, CAB 87/68; Armistice and Post-War Committee minutes, 1st meeting, January 4, 1945, CAB 121/85.
33. C. R. Attlee, “Post-War Settlement—Policy in Respect of Germany,” July 19, 1943, W.P. 42 (322), CAB 66/39.
34. Minute by Troutbeck, September 8, 1945, FO 371/46812.
35. Minute by Toynbee, January 30, 1945, FO 371/46811.
36. “PWE/OSS Daily Intelligence Summary for Germany and Austria” no. 139, January 30, 1945, FO 371/46810.
37. Minute by O’Neill for T. H. Marshall, Foreign Office Research Department, January 31, 1945, FO 371/46810.
38. See Brandes, Der Weg zur Vertreibung, pp. 286–290.
39. R. C. Raack, “Stalin Fixes the Oder-Neisse Line,” Journal of Contemporary History 25:4 (October 1990): 474.
40. Quoted in G. Strauchold, Myśl zachodnia i jej realizacja w Polsce Ludowej w latach 1945–1957 (Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, 2003), pp. 85–6.
41. P. E. Mosely, assistant chief of the Division of Political Studies, “Poland—Germany: Territorial Problems: Polish-German Frontier from Silesia to the Baltic Sea,” H-27, August 18, 1943, in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1970), p. 734.
42. Brandes, Der Weg zur Vertreibung, p. 280.
43. Churchill to Roosevelt, October 18, 1944, FRUS, vol. 1: Diplomatic Papers 1944: General (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 1327.
44. Quoted in D. J. Allen, The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Germany in the Cold War (Westport, CT: Praeger 2003), p. 15.
45. R. E. Schoenfeld to Cordell Hull, December 21, 1944, FRUS, vol. 3: Diplomatic Papers 1944: The British Commonwealth and Europe (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 1350.
46. See questions by G. Strauss (Lab., Lambeth North), Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 402, col. 1521 (August 2, 1944); R. R. Stokes (Lab., Ipswich), ibid., c. 1539; A. Eden, ibid., c. 1549.
47. Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 406, cols. 1483–4 (December 15, 1944).
48. Maurice Petherick (Con., Penryn & Falmouth), ibid., col. 1540 (December 15, 1944).
49. Ibid., col. 1484 (December 15, 1944).
50. Ibid., c. 1562 (December 15, 1944).
51. Manchester Guardian, December 16, 1944.
52. G. Orwell, “As I Please,” Tribune, February 2, 1945.
53. Chicago Tribune, December 18, 1944. Se
e also S. Jankowiak, Wysiedlenie i emigracja ludności Niemieckiej w polityce władz Polskich w latach 1945–1970 (Warsaw: Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, 2005), pp. 28–9.
54. D. Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (New York: Random House, 2005), pp. 274, 326–7, 418–19, 466.
55. D. Brandes, “National and International Planning of the ‘Transfer’ of Germans from Czechoslovakia and Poland,” in Bessel and Haake, Removing Peoples, pp. 289–90.
56. E. Stettinius, ‘Memorandum of Suggested Action Items for the President,’ n.d. (c. February 4, 1945), in FRUS, Diplomatic Papers, 1945: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 568.
57. Quoted in J. Fenby, Alliance: The Inside Story of How Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill Won One War and Began Another (London: Simon & Schuster, 2006), p. 366.
58. Verbatim transcript by H. Freeman Matthews, director of the Office of European Affairs, Department of State, of fourth plenary session, Yalta Conference, February 7, 1945, FRUS: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 720.
59. “Report of the Crimea Conference,” February 11, 1945, ibid., p. 974.
60. Minute by Harvey, March 30, 1945, FO 371/47085.
61. Minute by Attlee, April 17, 1945, FO 371/46810.
62. Minutes of Fifth “Terminal” Meeting, Potsdam, July 21, 1945, FO 934/3.
63. F. Taylor, Dresden, Tuesday, February 13, 1945 (London: HarperCollins, 2004), p. 185.
64. Ibid., p. 376.
65. FRUS: Diplomatic Papers: The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), p. 1511.
66. Minutes of Sixth “Terminal” Meeting, Potsdam, July 22, 1945, FO 934/3.
67. J. Hynd, “The Problem of the German Refugee Populations in the British Zone,” O.R.C. (46) 74, July 27, 1946, FO 945/67.
CHAPTER 4. THE “WILD EXPULSIONS”
1. See P. M. Majewski, “Czechosłowaccy wojskowi wobec problemu wysiedlenia mniejszości niemieckiej i powojennych granic państwa, 1939–1945,” Przegląd historyczny 90:2 (1999): 169–183.
2. P. Demetz, Prague in Danger: The Years of German Occupation, 1939–45 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008), p. 235.
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