by Nathan Wolfe
4 There is still debate on the relationship between viruses and cell-based life. In fact, viruses may not even all be related to each other. Some may have originated as the DNA of cell-based life forms while others may be descendants of life forms that predated the emergence of cell-based life.
5 My doctoral research was conducted largely in Borneo, in the Malaysian state of Sabah. I was lucky enough to get the assistance of the world’s most prominent wildlife veterinarian, Billy Karesh, who at the time was at the Wildlife Conservation Society. Billy took me under his wing, let me take part in his project, and introduced me to his Malaysian colleagues. I watched them conduct absolutely amazing work, tranquilizing wild orangutans with dart guns and moving them from small disappearing forest fragments to a large reserve that the Malaysian government had set aside for conservation. From my own research perspective, I had the invaluable opportunity to get specimens from elusive wild orangutans while they were being transported! During my time there, I spent many months working on a daily basis with Annelisa Kilbourn, the extraordinary wildlife veterinarian who died tragically during a plane crash some years later while working with gorillas in central Africa.
SOURCES
This section provides sources I used either directly to obtain figures or facts or indirectly as background. It also includes books (marked with an *) for those interested in further reading on topics raised in the individual chapters.
INTRODUCTION
Balfour, F. “A Young Life Ended by Avian Flu.” Businessweek.com, February 3, 2004.
*Barry, J. M. The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History. New York: Viking, 2004.
“Bird Flu Claims First Thai Victim—January 26, 2004.” CNN.com World, January 26, 2004.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Childhood Influenza-Vaccination Coverage—United States, 2002–3 Influenza Season.” MMWR 53 (2004): 863–66.
Chokephaibulkit, K., M. Uiprasertkul, P. Puthavathana, P. Chearskul, P. Auewarakul, S. F. Dowell, and N. Vanprapar. “A Child With Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Infection.” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 24, no. 2 (2005): 162–66.
Clayton, D. H., and N. Wolfe. “The Adaptive Significance of Self-Medication.” Trends in Evolution and Ecology 8 (1993):60–63; doi: 10.1016/0169-5347(93)90160–Q.
“Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H5N1) Reported to WHO.” Global Alert and Response (GAR), World Health Organization, December 9, 2010; www.who/int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/cases_table_2010_12_09/en/index.html.
Duffy, S., L. A. Shackelton, and E. C. Holmes. “Rates of Evolutionary Change in Viruses: Patterns and Determinants.” Nature Reviews Genetics 9 (2008): 267–76; doi: 10.1038/nrg2323.
“Epidemiology of WHO-Confirmed Human Cases of Avian A (H5N1) Infection.” Weekly Epidemiological Record (WER) 81, no. 26 (2006): 249–60.
“Historical Estimates of World Population.” International Programs, U.S. Census Bureau; www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html.
Johnson, N. P., and J. Mueller. “Updating the Accounts: Global Mortality of the 1918–1920 ‘Spanish’ Influenza Pandemic.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 76, no. 1 (2002): 105–15; doi:10.1353/bhm.2002.0022.
Lynn, J. “WHO Maintains 2 Billion Estimate for Likely H1N1 Cases” Reuters.com, August 4, 2009.
Newton, P., and N. D. Wolfe. “Can Animals Teach Us Medicine?” British Medical Journal 305 (1992): 1517–18.
Patterson, K. D., and G. F. Pyle. “The Geography and Mortality of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 4–21.
Sarkees, M. R. “The Correlates of War Data on War: An Update to 1997.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 18, no. 1 (2000): 123–44; doi.10.1177/073889420001800105.
Sipress, A. “Thai Boy Dies from Bird Flu; Indonesia Reports Spread of Virus.” Washington Post, January 26, 2004, final edition.
Small, M., and J. D. Singer. Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816–1980. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1982.
Taubenberger J. K., and D. M. Morens. “1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (January 2006).
“Transmission Dynamics and Impact of Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Virus.” Weekly Epidemiological Record (WER) 84, no. 46 (2009): 481–84.
1: THE VIRAL PLANET
Acheson, N. H. Fundamentals of Molecular Virology. New York: Wiley, 2006: 4.
Bergh, O., K. Y. Borsheim, G. Bratbak, and M. Heldal. “High Abundance of Viruses Found in Aquatic Environments.” Nature 340 (1989): 467–68; doi:10.1038/340467a0.
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*Davies, P. The Eerie Silence: Renewing Our Search for Alien Intelligence. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010.
Diamond, J., and N. Wolfe. “Where Will the Next Pandemic Emerge?” Discover (November 2008).
Domingo, E., et al. “Quasispecies Structure and Persistence of RNA Viruses.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 4, no. 4 (1998): 521–27.
*Ewald, P. W. Evolution of Infectious Disease. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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Holmes, E. C. “Error Thresholds and the Constraints to RNA Virus Evolution.” Trends in Microbiology 11, no. 12 (2003): 543–46; doi:10.1016/jitim.2003.10.006.
Hulden, L., L. Hulden, and K. Heliovaara. “Natural Relapses in Vivax Malaria Induced by Anopheles Mosquitoes.” Malaria Journal 7, no. 1 (2008): 64–74; doi:10.1186/1475-2875-7-64.
Middelboe, M., and N. O. G. Jorgensen. “Viral Lysis of Bacteria: An Important Source of Dissolved Amino Acids and Cell Wall Compounds.” Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 86 (2006): 605–12; doi:10.1017/S0025315406013518.
Rohwer, F., and R. Vega Thurber. “Viruses Manipulate the Marine Environment.” Nature 459, no. 7244 (2009): 207–12; doi:10.1038/nature08060.
Smith Hughes, S. “Beijerick, Martinus Willem.” Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2008: 13–15.
Vyas, A., S. K. Kim, and R. M. Sapolsky. “The Effects of Toxoplasma Infection on Rodent Behavior Are Dependent on Dose of the Stimulus.” Neuroscience 148, no. 2 (2007): 342–48; doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.06.021.
Webster J. P., P. H. L. Lamberton, C. A. Donnelly, and E. F. Torrey. “Parasites as Causative Agents of Human Affective Disorders?: The Impact of Anti-Psychotic and Anti-Protozoan Medication on Toxoplasma gondii’s Ability to Alter Host Behaviour.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273 (2006): 1023–30; doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3413.
Wolfe, N. The Aliens Among Us. What’s Next? Dispatches on the Future of Science. Ed. Max Brockman. New York: Vintage, 2009: 185–96.
2: THE HUNTING APE
Bailes, E., F. Gao, F. Bibollet-Ruche, V. Courgnaud, M. Peeters, P. A. Marx, Beatrice H. Hahn, and Paul M. Sharp. “Hybrid Origin of SIV in Chimpanzees.” Science 300, no. 5626 (2003): 1713; doi:10.1126/science.1080657.
*Diamond, J. M. The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. New York: HarperCollins, 1992.
Hohmann, G., and B. Fruth. “New Records on Prey Capture and Meat Eating by Bonobos at Lui Kotale, Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo.” Folia Primatologica 79, no. 2 (2008): 103–10; doi:10.1159/000110679.
Keele, B. F., et al. “Increased Mortality and AIDS-like Immunopathology in Wild Chimpanees Infected with SIVcpz.” Nature 460, no. 7254 (2009): 515–19; doi:10.1038/nature08200.
Lee-Thorp, J. A., M. Sponheimer, B. H. Passey, D. J. De Ruiter, and T. E. Cerling. “Stable Isotopes in Fossil Hominin Tooth Enamel Suggest a Fundamental Dietary Shift in the Pliocene.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365, no. 1556 (2010): 3389–96; doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0059.
McGrew, W. C. “Savanna Chimpanzees Dig for Food.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 49 (2007): 19167–68; doi:10.1073/pnas.0710330105.
McPherron, S. P., Z. Alemseged, C. W. Marean, J. G. Wynn, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe, and H. A. Bearat. “Evidence for Stone-Tool-Assisted Consumption of Animal Tissues before 3.39 Million Years Ago at Dikika, Ethiopia.” Nature 466 (2010): 857–60; doi:10.1038/nature09248.
Sponheimer, M., and J. A. Lee-Thorp. “Isotopic Evidence for the Diet of an Early Hominid, Australopithecus Africanus.” Science 283 (1999): 368–70; doi:10.1126/science.283.5400.368.
*Stanford, C. B. The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Wolfe, N. “Preventing the Next Pandemic.” Scientific American (April 2009): 76–81.
Wolfe, N. D., C. Panosian Dunavan, and J. Diamond. “Origins of Major Human Infectious Diseases.” Nature 447, no. 7142 (2007): 279–83; doi:10.1038/nature05775.
Wolfe, N. D., et al. “Deforestation, Hunting and the Ecology of Microbial Emergence.” Global Change and Human Health 1, no. 1 (2000): 10–25; doi:10.1023/A:1011519513354.
Wrangham, R., M. Wilson, B. Hare, and N. D. Wolfe. “Chimpanzee Predation and the Ecology of Microbial Exchange.” Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease 12, no. 3 (2000): 186–88; doi:10.1080/089106000750051855.
3: THE GREAT PATHOGEN BOTTLENECK
Behar, D. M., R. Villems, H. Soodyall, J. Blue-Smith, L. Pereira, E. Metspalu, R. Scozzari, H. Makkan, S. Tzur, and D. Comas. “The Dawn of Human Matrilineal Diversity.” American Journal of Human Genetics 82, no. 5 (2008): 1130–40; doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002.
Black, F. L. “Infectious Diseases in Primitive Societies.” Science 187 (1975): 515–18; doi:10.1126/science.163483.
*Cela-Conde, C. J., and F. J. Ayala. Human Evolution: Trails from the Past. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
*Coatney, G. R., W. E. Collins, M. Warren, and P. G. Contacos. The Primate Malarias. Bethesda, Md.: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1971.
Cornuet, J. M., and G. Luikart. “Description and Power Analysis of Two Tests for Detecting Recent Population Bottlenecks from Allele Frequency Data.” Genetics 144 (1996): 2001–14.
Dobson, A. P., and E. R. Carper. “Infectious Diseases and Human Population History.” BioScience 46, no. 2 (1996): 115–26.
Gao, F., et al. “Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan Troglodytes Troglodytes.” Nature 397, no. 6718 (1999): 436–41; doi:10.1038/17130.
Gibbons, A. “Pleistocene Population Explosions.” Science 262, no. 5130 (1993): 27–28; doi:10.1126/science.262.5130.27.
*Goodall, J. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1986.
Huff, C. D., J. Xing, A. R. Rogers, D. Witherspoon, and L. B. Jorde. “Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 5 (2010): 2147–52; doi:10.1073/pnas.0909000107.
*Kingdon, J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. San Diego: Academic, 1997.
Liu, Weimin, et al. “Origin of the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium Falciparum in Gorillas.” Nature 467, no. 7314 (2010): 420–25; doi:10.1038/nature09442.
Prugnolle, F., et al. “African Great Apes Are Natural Hosts of Multiple Related Malaria Species, including Plasmodium Falciparum.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 4 (2010): 1458–63; doi:10.1073/pnas.0914440107.
Reed, K. E. “Early Hominid Evolution and Ecological Change through the African Plio-Pleistocene.” Journal of Human Evolution 32 (1997): 289–322; doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0106.
Rich, S. M., F. H. Leendertz, G. Xu, M. LeBreton, C. F. Djoko, M. N. Aminake, E. E. Takang, J. L. D. Diffo, B. L. Pike, B. M. Rosenthal, P. Formenty, C. Boesch, F. J. Ayala, and N. D. Wolfe. “The Origin of Malignant Malaria.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 35 (2009): 14902–7; doi:10.1073/pnas.0907740106.
Wolfe, N. D., C. Panosian Dunavan, and J. Diamond. “Origins of Major Human Infectious Diseases.” Nature 447, no. 7142 (2007): 279–83; doi:10.1038/nature05775.
Wolfe, N. D., M. N. Eitel, J. Gockowski, P. K. Muchaal, C. Nolte, A. Tassy Prosser, J. Ndongo Torimiro, S. F. Weise, and D. S. Burke. “Deforestation, Hunting and the Ecology of Microbial Emergence.” Global Change and Human Health 1, no. 1 (2000): 10–25; doi:10.1023/A:1011519513354.
*Wrangham, R. Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. New York: Basic, 2009.
Yang, Z. “Likelihood and Bayes Estimation of Ancestral Population Sizes in Hominoids Using Data From Multiple Loci.” Genetics 162 (2002): 1811–23.
4: CHURN, CHURN, CHURN
Cleaveland, L. H., M. K. Laurenson, and L. H. Taylor. “Diseases of Humans and Their Domestic Mammals: Pathogen Characteristics, Host Range and the Risk of Emergence.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 356 (2001): 991–99; doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0889.
Currie, C. R., J. A. Scott, R. C. Summerbell, and D. Malloch. “Letters: Fungus-Growing Ants Use Antibiotic-Producing Bacteria to Control Garden Parasites.” Nature 398, no. 6729 (1999): 701–4; doi:10.1038/19519.
Currie, C. R., U. G. Mueller, and D. Malloch. “The Agricultural Pathology of Ant Fungus Gardens.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96 (1999): 7998–8002; doi:10.1073/pnas.96.14.7998.
Delmas, O., E. C. Holmes, C. Talbi, F. Larrous, L. Dacheux, C. Bouchier, and H. Bourhy. “Genomic Diversity and Evolution of the Lyssaviruses.” PLoS ONE E2057 3, no. 4 (2008): 1–6; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002057.
Diamond, J. “Evolution, Consequences, and Future of Plant and Animal Domestication.” Nature 418, no. 6898 (2002): 700–707; doi:10.1038/nature01019.
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Field, H. E., J. S. Mackenzie, and P. Daszak. “Henipaviruses: Emerging Paramyxoviruses Associated with Fruit Bats.” Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 315 (2007): 133–59; doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_7.
Field, H., P. Young, J. M. Yob, J. Mills, L. Hall, and J. Mackenzie. “The Natural History of Hendra and Nipah Viruses.” Microbes and Infection 3, no. 4 (2001): 307–14; doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3.
*Goodall, J. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1986.
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LeBreton, M., S. Umlauf, C. F. Djoko, P. Daszak, D. S. Burke, P. Y. Kwenkam, and N. D. Wolfe. “Rift Valley Fever in Goats, Cameroon.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, no. 4 (2006): 702–3.
Li, W., et al. “Bats Are Natural
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Luby, S. P., E. S. Gurley, and M. J. Hossain. “Transmission of Human Infection with Nipah Virus.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 49, no. 11 (2009): 1743–48; doi:10.1086/647951.
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5: THE FIRST PANDEMIC
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Bermejo, M., J. D. Rodriguez-Teijeiro, G. Illera, A. Barroso, C. Vila, and P. D. Walsh. “Ebola Outbreak Killed 5000 Gorillas.” Science 314, no. 5805 (2006): 1564; doi:10.1126/science.1133105.