16. Becker, Papst Urban II, ii, 352–62 (esp. pp. 352–3), 374–6, 398–9.
17. Urban to Bolognese, 19 Sept. 1096, Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 137–8; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.
18. Robert the Monk (of Rheims), Historia, RHC Occ., iii, 727–30.
19. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum, xx, col. 816; Somerville, Decreta Claromontensia, p. 74; in general, H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s Preaching of the First Crusade’, History, 55 (1970), 177–88; for the Bologna letter, J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.
20. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 136–7; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 38.
21. Fulk of Anjou, Gesta Andegavensium, RHC Occ., v, 345; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 39.
22. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 13.
23. Henry of Huntingdon, De captione Antiochae a Christianis, RHC Occ., v, 374.
24. Glaber, Historiarum, pp. 200–201.
25. Adhemar of Chabannes, Chronicon, bk III, c. 47, pp. 166–7.
26. Vita Altmanni, p. 230.
27. Benzo of Alba, Ad Heinricum IV. Imperatorem Libri VII, MGHS, xi, 605, 606, 616–17, 652; MGHS, lxv, 144; J. Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes: Alexius Comnenus and the First Crusade’, The First Crusade, ed. J. Phillips (Manchester 1997), pp. 107–29 and note 5 above.
28. Cowdrey, ‘Urban II and the Idea of Crusade’, pp. 721–42; cf. G. J. C. Snoek, Medieval Piety: From Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), pp. 25–6, 35; Adhemar of Chabannes, Opera, PL, cxli, col. 110.
29. Snoek, Medieval Piety, p. 87.
30. Winchester Annals, Annales Monastici, ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series (London 1864–69), ii, 38.
31. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 142, 164; Gesta Francorum, p. 7 (for the date, often recorded as Sept. 1096, E. Jamison, ‘Some Notes on the Anonymi Gesta Francorum’, Studies in French Medieval Literature Presented to M. K. Pope (Manchester 1939), pp. 183–208.
32. R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987), p. 77; cf. S. Eidelberg, The Jews and the Crusaders: The Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades (Madison 1977), pp. 21–115.
33. Baldric of Bourgeuil, Historia Jerosolimitana, RHC Occ., iv, 12.
34. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 136.
35. Note 21 above; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 136–44, 176, 179; Urban’s letters, J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 38–40; for Limoges, RHC Occ., v, 350–53; for Amanieu, Cartulaire du prieuré de Sainte-Pierre de la Réole, ed. C. Grellet-Balguerie, Archives historiques de la Gironde, v (1863), 140.
36. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.
37. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 62 and ref. note 41; PL, clvii, col. 162.
38. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 138; cf. p. 154 for the leaders talking of pilgrimage in 1098; see note 15 above for pilgrimage motifs in charters.
39. Notitiae duae Lemoviensis de praedicatione crucis in Aquitania, RHC Occ., v, 350–53. For the importance of Christocentric festivals, see the deal between Cluny and Achard of Montmerle on 12 April, i.e. Easter Saturday, 1096, Bruel, Chartes de Cluny, v, 51–3.
40. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 75; France, Victory, p. 45.
41. For monkish touts, Cartulaires de l’abbaye de Molesme 916–1250, ed. J. Laurent (Paris 1907–11), ii, 83–4; Cartulaire de l’abbaye de Noyers, Mémoires de la société archéologique de Touraine, xxii (1872), ed. C. Chevalier, pp. 274–5; Cartulaire du prieuré de Notre Dame de Longpont de l’ordre de Cluny, ed. A. Marion (Lyons 1879), pp. 189–90; for the inculcation of a crusader’s sense of sin, Cartulaire Manceau de Marmoutier, ed. E. Laurain (Laval 1911–45), ii, 86–9.
42. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2.
43. Caffaro, De liberatione civitatum Orientis, RHC Occ., v, 49.
44. The chief primary sources for Peter are Albert of Aachen, Historia, RHC Occ., iv, 271–4; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 142–3 (p. 140 for ‘great rumour’); Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, trans. E. R. A. Sewter (London 1969), pp. 309–11; cf. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. and trans. M. ChIbnall (Oxford 1969–79), v, 29. See E. O. Blake and C. Morris, ‘A Hermit Goes to War: Peter and the Origins of the First Crusade’, Monks, Hermits and the Ascetic Tradition, ed. W. J. Shields, Studies in Church History, xxii (1985), 79–109, which challenges the orthodoxy established by H. Hagenmeyer, Peter der Eremite (Leipzig 1879); the patriarch’s letter is translated by E. Peters, The First Crusade (2nd edn Philadelphia 1998), pp. 283–4; I am grateful to Jonathan Shepard for discussion on some of these points.
45. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2, ‘The Gauls organised themselves into three parts. One group of Franks entered the region of Hungary, namely Peter the Hermit and Duke Godfrey…’
46. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 56.
47. Adhemar of Chabannes, Chronicon, bk III, c. 47, pp. 166–7; Gieysztor, ‘Genesis of Crusades.
48. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 272; for Peter’s retirement and foundation of the Augustinian abbey at Neumoustier near Huy, dedicated to the Holy Sepulchre and John the Baptist ‘in remembrance and veneration of the church of Jerusalem’, Chronica Albrici monarchi Trium Fontium a monarcho novi monasterii Hoiensis interpolata, MGHS, xxiii, 815; Giles of Orval, Gesta episcoporum Leodiensium, MGHS, xxv, 93.
49. Naser-e Khosraw, Book of Travels, p. 39; C. Cahen, ‘La Chronique abrégé d’al-Azimi’, Journal Asiatique, 230 (1938), 430; C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), p. 50.
50. C. De Vic and J Vaissete, Histoire générale de Languedoc, v (Toulouse 1875), col. 737–8; Riley-Smith, The First Crusade, p. 21.
51. France, Victory, p. 194; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 348–9; for Alexius and westerners see the articles by J. Shepard, ‘Aspects of Byzantine Attitudes’; ‘Alexius and the First Crusade’; ‘When Greek Meets Greek: Alexius Comnenus and Bohemund in 1097–8’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–277; ‘The English in Byzantium’, Traditio, 29 (1973), 52–93. The Sicilian point I owe to Dr Jeremy Johns.
52. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, iii, 134–6; v, 156–9.
53. Frutolfi et Ekkehardi Chronica, ed. F.-J. Schmale and I. Schmale (Darmstadt 1972), p. 106. C. Haskins, ‘A Canterbury Monk at Constantinople’, English Historical Review, 25 (1910), 293–5; Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’, pp. 116–22.
54. Duparc-Quioc, La Chanson d’Antioche, v, 3449.
55. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 44, 52.
56. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.
57. Jerusalem Mirabilis, in R. L. Crocker, ‘Early Crusade Songs’, The Holy War, ed. T. P. Murphy (Columbus, Ohio 1976), pp. 78–98.
58. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 140–41.
59. By Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, esp. pp. 93–105.
60. RHC Occ., iii, 727–30.
61. Duparc-Quioc, Chanson d’Antioche, v, 7921.
62. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 124.
63. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1095–1127, trans. F. R. Ryan, intro. H. S. Fink (Knoxville 1969), pp. 66–7.
64. These cited by Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, pp. 113–14.
65. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, RHC Occ., iii, 605–6; for Thomas of Marle, Suger of St Denis, Vita Ludovici Grossi regis, ed. H. Waquet (Paris 1929), pp. 30–34, 174–8 and pp. 150–51 for Stephen of Blois; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 79 for William; for Raimbold, PL, clxii, cols. 144–5 and C. J. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Basingstoke, 1998), pp. 11–12.
66. Quoted by Somerville, Prolegomena to the Decreta Claromontensia, in Papacy, Councils and Canon Law, VI, pp. 33–5.
67. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 251; Deeds of God through the Franks, trans. R. Levine (Woodbridge 1997), p. 156.
68. Vita Altmanni, p. 230.
69. Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, p. 367; for his hostility to papal use of indulgences for war, MGH, Libelli de Lite Imperatorem et Pontificum, ii (Hanover 1892), 464.
3: The March to Con
stantinople
1. Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, p. 367; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 274, 277, 289, 340; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia iii, 244; Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 2–3; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 136 and passim; Riley-Smith, First Crusade, esp. pp. 111–12, 141–2, 147–8; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 141–2, 146; France, Victory, pp. 148, 210.
2. The best modern account of the campaign is France, Victory.
3. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill. p. 91.
4. The Lorraine and German expeditions are the prime concern of Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 272 et seq. For chronology, see J. W. Nesbitt, ‘The Rate of March of Crusading Armies’, Traditio, 19 (1963), who amends H. Hagenmeyer, Chronologie de la première croisade (Paris 1902).
5. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 140–92 and 142–3 for his hostile account of Peter; cf. F. Duncalf, ‘The Peasants’ Crusade’, American Historical Review, 26 (1920–21), 440–53, esp. p. 441.
6. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 183–4.
7. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, p. 286 and pp. 293–308; Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’, esp. p. 115 for comments on this background.
8. Nesbitt, ‘Rate of March’, esp. p. 173; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 278–82 for the size of the army and length of line in the Balkans.
9. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 280.
10. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 288.
11. Chazan, European Jewry p. 23 and, in general, pp. 1–37.
12. R. Chazan, ‘1007–1012: Initial Crisis for Northern European Jewry’, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, 38–9 (1970–71), 101–17.
13. Chazan, European Jewry, p. 36.
14. Runciman, History of Crusades, i, 137 and pp. 134–41 for the pogrom; cf. Chazan, European Jewry, pp. 50–136; the chief Jewish sources are translated by S. Eidelberg, Jews and the Crusaders, pp. 21–75, 79–93, 99–115. Emich of Flonheim used to be known to historians as Emich of Leinengen, A. V. Murray, ‘The Army of Godfrey de Bouillon: Structure and Dynamics of a Contingent on the First Crusade’, Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire, 70 (1992), 315–22.
15. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 36.
16. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 50.
17. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 295.
18. Guibert of Nogent, De vita sua, ed. E.-R. Labande (Paris 1981), pp. 246–8; Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 293; Ekkehard of Aura, Hierosolymita, RHC Occ., v, 20.
19. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 108 (the Mainz Anonymous); in general Chazan, European Jewry, pp. 72–84; cf. the awkward passages in Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 53–7.
20. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, pp. 21, 112.
21. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 138, 139.
22. Cf. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 50.
23. Chazan, European Jewry, p. 145.
24. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 19; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 137–8.
25. Actes des comtes de Flandres 1071–1128, ed. F. Vercauteren (Brussels 1938), pp. 65–6, no. 22; the count of Roucy is a witness.
26. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 74.
27. Preserved in mangled form by Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 313–14.
28. ‘Elias who had deserted from the emperor…’, Alexiad, p. 314.
29. H. E. Mayer, Mélanges sur l’histoire du royaume Latin de Jérusalem (Paris 1984), pp. 17, 22–7, 43, 44, 49; Murray ‘The Army of Godfrey de Bouillon’, pp. 301–29, esp. pp. 314, 327.
30. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2; G. Paris, ‘La Chanson du pèlerinage de Charlemagne’, Romania, 9 (1880), 1–50; J. Flori, ‘Pur eschalier sainte crestienté. Croisade, guerre sainte et guerre juste dans les anciennes chansons de geste françaises’, Le Moyen Age, 97 (5th series vol. v, 1991), 171–87.
31. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 274.
32. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 311, and pp. 305–11 for the Constantinople stand-off.
33. This, at least, is the impression given by Albert of Aachen, who listened to them.
34. See now J. D. Howard-Johnston, ‘Anna Komnene and the Alexiad’, in Alexios Komnenos, ed. M. E. Mullett and D. Smythe (Belfast 1996); J. France, ‘Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade’, Reading Medieval Studies, 10 (1983), 20–32.
35. Runciman, History of Crusades, i, 157–8.
36. On Bohemund’s expedition, Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 7–9 et seq., whose author was with it; E. Jamison, ‘Some Notes on the Anonymi Gesta Francorum’; on Bohemund’s position on the crusade, J. Shepard, ‘When Greek Meets Greek’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–276.
37. Marquis de la Force, ‘Les Conseillers latins du basileus Alexis Comnene’, Byzantion, xi (1936), 153–65; D. Nicol, ‘Symbiosis and Integration; Some Greco-Latin Families in Byzantium’, Byzantinische Forschungen, 7 (1979), 113–35; W. B. McQueen, ‘Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071–1112’, Byzantion, 56 (1986), 427–76.
38. Shepard, ‘Greek Meets Greek’ for these details.
39. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 22.
40. France, Victory, p. 98.
41. For Spain, Bull, Knightly Piety, p. 83.
42. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 18.
43. According to William of Poitiers, see Shepard, ‘Aspects of Byzantine Attitudes towards the West’.
44. On Robert’s crusade and career, C. W. David, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (Cambridge, Mass. 1920); cf. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls Series (London 1887–9), ii, 433, 460, 461 for later myths and gossip.
45. France, Victory, p. 129.
46. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149.
47. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 75–6.
48. J. H. Pryor, ‘The Oath of the Leaders of the First Crusade to the Emperor Alexius Comnenus: Fealty, Homage’, Parergon, 2 (1984), 111–41; France, Victory, pp. 107–21 for a trenchant account; cf. Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’ and ‘Greek Meets Greek’.
49. France, Victory, p. 154.
50. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 315, 325, 327, etc.
51. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 73.
52. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 24.
53. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, p. 329; cf. the embarrassed Gesta Francorum, p. 12.
54. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 140.
4: The Road to the Holy Sepulchre
1. France, Victory, pp. 165–9 and, for Egyptian negotiations in general, pp. 211, 252–4 302, 304, 317, 325–6; cf. R. J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096–1204 (Eng. trans. Oxford 1993), chap. 1, pp. 1–60.
2. Ibn al-Qalanisi, The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), p. 41; G. Dedeyan, ‘Les Colophons de manuscrits arméniens comme sources pour l’histoire des croisades’, The Crusades and their Sources: Essays Presented to Bernard Hamilton, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot 1998), pp. 89–110; P. M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades (London 1986), p. 27 for the translation of al-Sulami.
3. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 21 and throughout the account of the siege of Antioch, pp. 28 et seq. For an account of the Christian communities in the Levant, see below pp. 226.
4. Emerton, Correspondence of Gregory VII, p. 94.
5. See the discussion and references in R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1998), pp. 20–22.
6. For brief general surveys, see Holt, Age of Crusades and R. Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages (London 1986).
7. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 21.
8. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 85; for the best modern account of the battle and its location, France, Victory, pp. 169–85, which also provides the most detailed narrative of the crusaders’ campaigns in Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.
9. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.
11. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 347–8.
12. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 25–6.
13. On this Armenian strategy, France, Victory, pp. 190–96.
14. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 88–92 (p. 90 for the number of knights).
15. For the Chanson d’Antioche, see the edition of S. Duparc-Quioc (Paris 1977–8); R. F. Cook, ‘Chanson d’Antioche’, chanson de geste: le cycle de la croisade est-il épique? (Amsterdam 1980); for other stories, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 22–3; cf. the stained glass sequence on the crusade at St Denis, c.1146–7.
16. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 438–9.
17. For Bohemund’s ambitions, J. Shepard, ‘When Greek Meets Greek’; T. S. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (2000), pp. 15–42.
18. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 31.
19. Usamah Ibn-Munqidh, An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munqidh, trans. P. K. Hitti (reprint Princeton 1987), pp. 149–50.
20. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 35.
21. J. A. Brundage, ‘Prostitution, Miscegenation and Sexual Purity in the First Crusade’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. Edbury (Cardiff 1985), pp. 57–65.
22. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, pp. 36–7; J. Richard, ‘La Confrérie de la première croisade: à propos d’un episode de la première croisade’, Etudes de civilisation médiévale: mélanges offert à E. R. Labande, ed. B. Jeannau (Poitiers 1974), pp. 617–22.
23. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 141–2, 144–6, 146–9.
24. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 435; France, Victory, pp. 209–20 and refs.
25. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 34–5; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 37; cf. Shepard, ‘Greek Meets Greek’.
26. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150.
27. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 59; Gesta Francorum, p. 63.
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