by Adrian Raine
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7. A RECIPE FOR VIOLENCE
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28. Protein deficiency is more of a problem in developing countries, but even in developed countries protein deficiency can be an issue in poor areas. Protein provides essential amino acids for the rapid growth of fetal tissue and plays an important role in the antioxidant system.
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32. Walsh, W. J., Isaacson, R., Rehman, F. & Hall, A. (1997). Elevated blood copper/zinc ratios in assaultive young males. Physiology & Behavior 62, 327–29. In this study zinc levels were low and copper levels were high. Copper is elevated because when zinc is low, there is more bioavailability for copper.
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41. Pfeiffer, C. C. & Braverman, E. R. (1982). Zinc, the brain and behavior. Biological Psychiatry 17, 513–32.
42. Arnold, L. E., Pinkham, S. M. & Votolato, N. (2000). Does zinc moderate essential fatty acid and amphetamine treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 10, 111–17.
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44. Shea-Moore, M. M., Thomas, O. P. & Mench, J. A. (1996). Decreases in aggression in tryptophan-supplemented broiler breeder males are not due to increases in blood niacin levels. Poultry Science 75, 370–74.
45. In many laboratories the 100-gram drink that depletes tryptophan contains a mix of fifteen amino acids, none of which are tryptophan. This increases protein synthesis in the liver, which reduces tryptophan in the plasma. In addition, these amino acids compete with tryptophan for transportation across the blood-brain barrier. Essentially, what tryptophan the participants have available to them is swamped out by the other amino acids. The placebo drink is exactly the same except that the drink is balanced with the appropriate amount of tryptophan.
46. Bond, A. J., Wingrove, J. & Critchlow, D. G. (2001). Tryptophan depletion increases aggression in women during the premenstrual phase. Psychopharmacology 156, 477–80; Bjork, J. M., Dougherty, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Cherek, D. R. & Swann, A. C. (1999). The effects of tryptophan depletion and loading on laboratory aggression in men: Time course and a food-restricted control. Psychopharmacology 142, 24–30.
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48. Rubia, K., Lee, F., Cleare, A. J., Tunstall, N., Fu, C.H.Y., et al. (2005). Tryptophan depletion reduces right inferior prefrontal activation during response inhibition in fast, event-related fMRI. Psychopharmacology 179, 791–803.
49. Ledbetter, L. (1979). San Francisco Tense as Violence Follows Murder Trial. New York Times, May 23, A1, A18.
50. White Night Riots: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots.
51. Turner, W. (1979). Ex-official guilty of manslaughter in slayings on coast; 3,000 protest. New York Times, May 22, A1, D17.
52. White Night Riots: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots.
53. Schoenthaler, S. J. (1982). The effect of sugar on the treatment and control of anti-social behavior: A double-blind study of an incarcerated juvenile population. International Journal of Biosocial Research 3, 1–9.
54. Venables, P. H. & Raine, A. (1987). Biological theory. In B. McGurk, D. Thornton & M. Williams (eds.), Applying Psychology to Imprisonment: Theory and Practice, pp. 3–28. London: HMSO.
55. Pelto, P. (1967). Psychological anthropology. In A. Beals & B. Stegel (eds.), Biennial Review of Anthropology, pp. 151–55. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
56. Bolton, R. (1973). Aggression and hypoglycemia among the Quolla: A study in psycho-biological anthropology. Ethology 12, 227–57.
57. Bolton, R. (1979). Hostility in fantasy: A further test of the hypoglycaemia-aggression hypothesis. Aggressive Behavior 2, 257–74.
58. For a review of these studies, see Venables & Raine, Biological theory.
59. Virkkunen, M., Rissanen, A., Naukkarinen, H., Franssila-Kallunki, A., Linnoila, M., et al. (2007). Energy substrate metabolism among habitually violent alcoholic offenders having antisocial personality disorder. Psychiatry Research 150, 287–95.
60. Virkkunen, M., Rissanen, A., Franssila-Kallunki, A. & Tiihonen, J. (2009). Low non-oxidative glucose metabolism and violent offending: An 8-year prospective follow-up study. Psychiatry Research 168, 26–31.
61. McCrimmon, R. J., Ewing, F.M.E., Frier, B. M. & Deary, I. J. (1999). Anger state during acute insulin-induced hypoglycaemi
a. Physiology and Behavior 67, 35–39.
62. Moore, S. C., Carter, L. M. & van Goozen, S.H.M. (2009). Confectionery consumption in childhood and adult violence. British Journal of Psychiatry 195, 366–67.
63. Stewart, W. F., Schwartz, B. S., Davatzikos, C., et al. (2006). Past adult lead exposure is linked to neurodegeneration measured by brain MRI. Neurology 66, 1476–84.
64. CDC safety level values for bone and lead levels are somewhat different. In this case we are dealing with bone lead, and CDC safety levels for bone are defined as <15. Consequently, the average person in this study was at the very top of that safety level. Put another way, about half of the sample exceeded CDC-defined safe bone-lead levels.
65. Other affected structures included the cingulate and insula. Within the frontal lobe, the middle frontal gyrus was the area most reduced in volume.
66. Cecil, K. M., Brubaker, C. J., Adler, C. M., Dietrich, K. N., Altaye, M., et al. (2008). Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure. PLOS Medicine 5, 741–50.
67. One caveat is that this sample was 90 percent African-American and these prospective brain-imaging findings could be usefully replicated on a Caucasian sample. One would expect the same findings in other ethnic groups, although it is conceivable that poorer neighborhood conditions could result in greater exposure to lead in this community sample, and possibly stronger brain-lead relationships. The ethnicity of the sample of lead workers was not reported in Cecil et al. (2008).
68. For a detailed review see Needleman, H. L., Riess, J. A., Tobin, M. J., Biesecker, G. E. & Greenhouse, J. B. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association 275, 363–69.
69. Delville, Y. (1999). Exposure to lead during development alters aggressive behavior in golden hamsters. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 21, 445–49.