So numerous are they in some localities out of the usual beaten tracks of most travellers, that after the periodical storms whole areas may be seen stripped of sand, and leaving fragments and limbs exposed in such plenty and variety.
Assume two thousand years of widespread embalming, an average lifespan of thirty-three years and a stable population of eight million. This would leave you with about five hundred million mummies. Add to that the number of mummified animals including cats, bulls and crocodiles, and the number drastically rises. It is by no means rare to find above 30lbs weight of linen wrappings on mummies… One from the collection of Mr Davidson yielded, when unravelled, nearly 300 yards, and weighed, when bleached, nearly 32lbs. A princess from the late Mr Pettigrew’s collection [an American showman totally unconnected to Dr Pettigrew of London] was swathed in 40 thicknesses, producing 42 yards of the finest texture. The supply of linen rags would not be limited to the mummies of the human species alone; independent of that obtainable from this source, a more than equal amount of cloth could be depended on from the mummies of the sacred bulls, crocodiles, ibises, and cats, as all of these animals were embalmed and swathed in a superior quality of linen... some bandages, from five inches to five feet wide, and five yards long have been stripped from mummies their entire length without tearing.
Deck further calculated the average consumption of paper in America to be about 15lbs per person per year. This meant that the supply from Egyptian mummies would be able to keep up with the American demand for about fourteen years, by which point a substitute supply source or material would likely have been discovered, rendering the need for rags unnecessary. Thus he immediately set about shipping tons of Egyptian mummies across the Atlantic to America, for the sole purpose of making paper pulp from the linen wrappings (he published a paper on it in 1855). It seems that this was done on an experimental scale, and one newspaper (the Syracuse Sentinel) is said to have printed at least two of its editions on recycled mummy linen. Unfortunately, unlike the mummies, no copies of the papers have survived.
During this same period, America had become more aware of Egyptian mummies as a type of novelty. Many mummies were put on show in museums and travelling shows across the country, such as those displayed by Mr Pettigrew, who amused his audience by unwrapping the mummy and manipulating the skeletal remains. Elsewhere collecting Egyptian mummies was becoming a hobby for the rich. Dr Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, a noted London physician (he was also surgeon to the Duke of Kent and the Duke of Sussex) was one such collector; he held private parties where he would entertain his guests by unwrapping a mummy or displaying other curiosities. Pettigrew went on to write the History of Egyptian Mummies (1834), which is still referred to today. It is recorded that people flocked to watch Dr Pettigrew unwrap a mummy at the Royal College of Surgeons in London. So popular was the event that even the Archbishop of Canterbury was turned away.
For many years, Deck junior had evaluated other sources of material for paper-making, including aloe, plantain, banana and dagger-grass, but none of these proved suitable. He was aware of Egyptian artifacts and his interest in archaeology had come from his father, who had been on friendly terms with Giovanni Belzoni, described by some as an ‘infamous Italian robber of Egyptian tombs’. Belzoni gave Deck senior many authentic Egyptian artifacts and objects from his private collection, including a statue of the god Osiris, and a piece of linen claimed to be authentic mummy wrapping. It was claimed that friends of Isaiah Deck senior said he would often speak of the feeling that something malevolent was attached to some of the objects Belzoni had given him, in particular the statue of Osiris, which had been given with the stern warning, ‘Think no ill will of any man before it!’ While Deck senior dismissed such ideas as foolish, he nevertheless felt that the statue had an unexplainable presence that set the mood of the house. Deck senior believed that since Belzoni had stolen the artifacts from tombs or purchased them from dubious sources, including known grave plunderers and robbers, the wrath of the gods had been incurred. His staff often spoke of hearing strange voices whispering in a foreign tongue and in an agitated manner.
One male member of the household staff fell seriously ill and became blind after he called the statue, which was a constant talking point within the household, ‘a piece of useless rubbish that held no more mystical power than his big toe’. Then, foolishly some might say, he picked up the statue and commanded it to speak or move. When it didn’t, he replaced it on the shelf exclaiming, ‘It has no eyes, so it cannot see, it has no ears, so it cannot hear, it has no heart, so it cannot feel any emotion. It cannot do anything but look its ugly self.’ The man had previously been in good health, but that night he suffered dreadful nightmares, screaming for help and demanding that the black dog of death be removed from sitting on his chest. As he grew more delirious, he was screamed that the black dog was clawing at his face and gouging at his eyes. Yet no blood appeared on his face or around his eyes. It is said that when he awoke, he could see nothing, and was insane. The doctors who examined him could find no reason for the illness or the sudden blindness. Naturally, such matters were never divulged to the public or press. Isaiah Deck junior, however, was quick to try resolve matters, and immediately took possession of the statue and other curiosities, thereby returning some normality to his father’s home. Deck senior said that with the artifacts gone, (presumably to America with his son) the entire atmosphere in the house changed for the better. The whereabouts of the statue now are unknown.
Chapter 13
More Mummy Wrappings
It would seem that Isaiah Deck was not alone in his belief that mummy wrappings could be effectively recycled into paper. In another bizarre case, American industrialist Isaac Augustus Stanwood bought tons of mummy linen so that he could pulp it and make it into paper at his Maine-based plant. Stanwood claimed that because there were so many mummies available across Egypt, with each one being wrapped in 20lbs of cloth or more, and Egypt was a poor country, he had hit on a perfect way to make a lot of money.
The Portland Sunday Telegram published details and sketches of the mummies arriving by ship at Portland harbour, from where they were transported in large cases by horse cart to the plant. Once there, the mummies were tossed on to elongated benches where they were unceremoniously opened. No real care was taken by the handlers when they removed the woven linen bindings, which were thrown into a barrow and transferred to vats where they were reduced to pulp, thereafter being made into heavy brown wrapping paper. It appears that the gums and oils used by the ancient Egyptians during the embalming process added value to the papermaking process. Once the wrappings had been removed, the skeletal remains were discarded. Dozens of ancient skeletons were scattered across the floor. At the end of the working day the skeletons were put into a furnace.
Initially the plan seemed to work, but when it came to the paper production phase, the first of many problems arose. The initial issue facing Stanwood was that the mummy linen was so badly discoloured (various shades of brown and burnt orange) that it couldn’t be used in the creation of white paper. Refusing to admit defeat, Stanwood instead resolved to make brown wrapping paper. This paper would then be sold to shops for wrapping products.
It is said that Stanwood met no resistance procuring and purchasing the mummies in Egypt. Indeed, on several occasions he had to bid against an Egyptian railroad manager to buy them! The Egyptian Government (Railways), he claimed, had used dried-out mummies as fuel in their locomotives for many years.
Stanwood’s papermaking business came to an abrupt halt when a cholera epidemic ravaged the region, and Stanwood’s ‘mummy paper’ was blamed. Workers at the plant who had been handling the mummies spoke of the disgusting odour of death that permeated the air for many miles around the plant. Others mentioned handling dark broken bones, some of which still had rotting flesh attached. One curious report was of an aggressive black dog that was frequently seen loitering in the plant area. The creature would stand and stare at the workers a
s they unwrapped the mummies. When one man tossed the animal a bone, it reared up its head and launched itself at him, savagely attacking and biting him, before being forced away by workers who came to the man’s aid. The man who suffered the attack later died, his face contorted into a look of terror, and his eyes bulging from their sockets as if he were silently screaming. The workers were worried that the dog was still prowling the plant area, and many feared for their lives. Talk among the workers was that the dog was part of a curse, the harbinger of death.
The men knew that what they were doing was morally wrong: disturbing the dead and desecrating their tombs in order to make a profit. However, the management at the plant quelled all such talk, describing it as unfounded and ridiculous speculation. To put a permanent end to the damaging rumours, the managers ordered the dog to be shot – after all, it was a feral dog and had killed a worker. The dog was shot several times over a period of a few days, but nothing seemed to harm or kill it and it never showed signs of any suffering or injury. Poison traps were laid out, as were bear traps, but the creature remained alive. Eventually it was decided that the best way to destroy it was to starve it to death, so every possible source of nutrition was removed. Instead of wasting away, the animal remained fit and healthy. At times it was seen within a building in the plant that housed the skeletal remains; when approached it would snarl. When cholera broke out, the animal was seen one last time on a grass mound, howling to the heavens. Then it disappeared and was never seen again.
The plant was temporarily closed down by the authorities as the source of the cholera epidemic, and many men who worked there died. The local people maintained it was the curse of the pharaoh’s tomb that had caused the deaths. It was later revealed that many of the wrapped mummies contained papyri, upon which Egyptian writing could be seen. These were assumed to be curses. We shall never know, because the papyri, along with everything else, were recklessly destroyed in the furnace.
America was not alone in its abuse of mummies. According to some nineteenth-century sources, tens of thousands of mummies were shipped to England, where they were used as fertiliser. Elsewhere it had become fashionable for socialites to hold dinner parties where guests would be entertained by the unwrapping of an authentic Egyptian mummy that had been privately purchased by the host. The tale would be told to the guests that the specific mummy was some ancient Egyptian god, an evil tormentor of souls. In life he had arranged for the execution of thousands of Egyptians, but in death he was entertainment for guests, who would pass round pieces of the skeleton. The remains were eventually disposed of by incineration, being burnt in the homes of the wealthy, while some of the bones were given to dogs of the street.
It is also known that in the latter part of the nineteenth century, Arabs would sell the powdered remains of mummies mixed with butter, as an ointment to heal all kinds of ailments, including bruises. Mummy trafficking was becoming a financially rewarding business, and became more widespread during this period. However, there had long been a trade in mummies. In 1580 one merchant, Mr John Sanderson, went to great lengths to purchase close to 600 pounds (270kg) of mummy flesh, for sale on the English market. The flesh was sold to the upper classes, who believed it had unique mystical medicinal powers that would heal all illnesses. In 1549, a priest to Queen Catherine de Medici of France had conducted a private expedition to Egypt. While there, the priest worked closely with a group of Italian doctors, breaking in to dozens of tombs around Saqqara, searching for mummified remains. Catherine’s father-in-law, King Frances I of France, forever fearing assassination, carried about his person a pouch containing ground-up mummy, mixed with ground rhubarb. The king believed this potion would heal him should he ever be wounded while out shooting.
Another king to use mummies to his own advantage was King Charles II, who had a store of mummies and would collect the dust that fell from the wrappings. He would then rub this on to his skin, believing the ‘greatness’ (of the dead pharaoh) would rub off and help him. Was he cursed for such outrageous behaviour? During his time on the English throne Charles witnessed many catastrophic events that caused great loss of life: the Great Plague of London, which saw an estimated 7,000 people die, followed by the Great Fire of London, which destroyed around 13,200 houses and 87 churches in the English capital. On 2 February 1685, King Charles II had an apoplectic fit and died suddenly. It was initially believed that he had been poisoned, a theory put forward by one of the royal doctors, although today it is claimed that the symptoms he displayed indicate that he potentially died of a kidney infection.
Mummy powder was in great demand in the seventeenth century, but there were many dangerous rogue mixtures being sold on the streets of Europe, in particular in France. So problematic was this issue that in 1694 French pharmacist Pierre Pomet offered advice to prospective purchasers of mummy powder: ‘Look for one that is black without bones or dust, with a nice smell of something burnt rather than tar or resin’.
The original source of mummies came from Arab plunderers, who robbed graves in search of valuables such as jewellery or small statues. They were rogues, with no respect for the dead or living; the mummies were obstacles in the way of the treasure chests. Sometimes the tomb robbers would tear apart a mummy looking for hidden jewellery. As tomb robbery became more common, the tombs were designed to be more difficult to access once formally closed.
An excellent representation of the plight of a tomb robber comes from a story told by Ernest Wallis Budge. He recounted the tale of a party of Western treasure seekers who had a sticky surprise when they came across a tomb close to the pyramids near Cairo in around 1800. In the tomb they found a large sealed jar, which they opened and found to contain honey. Curiously, they were tempted to taste the honey, so one member of the party dipped a finger into the substance and tried it: it was indeed pure honey. They sent for some bread and a short time later began to eat the honey by dipping the bread into it. They thought that the centuries-old honey might have magical powers, and if not, at least it provided a splendid lunch. As they ate, one of the party noticed a hair floating on top of the honey. He tried to remove it, but was surprised to find it was attached to something else. He pulled the hair firmly and further hair appeared on the surface, which he grabbed and pulled from the jar. Out came the body of a fully dressed child, who had been placed in the jar and preserved in the honey! Needless to say, the party withdrew from the tomb in haste.
Chapter 14
The Mystery of Nesyamun
The mortal remains of one of Egypt’s most important mummies, Nesyamun (originally called Natsef-Amun) are now in Leeds, West Yorkshire. The name Nesyamun means ‘The one belonging to the God Amun’.
In life, and in death, Nesyamun has been involved in some horrific incidents, yet his body survives. His death remains something of mystery. He died during the reign of Ramesses XI (1113–1085 BC). When he died he was in his mid-forties. He was bald, and had well cared for and manicured hands and fingernails decorated with henna. He seems to have been a man who held a privileged position and lived a good life. When alive he measured just 5ft 6in tall and was employed as a ‘Waab priest’, which meant he had reached a certain level of purification and was therefore permitted to approach the statue of Amun in the most sacred inner sanctum of the temple. Part of his daily ritual would be to bath four times and shave twice. On his death, as was the custom, his body went through the mummification process and was buried in a tomb in the Deir el Bahri region of Egypt. There it lay undisturbed for 3,000 years until 1822, when it was unearthed during one of many tomb robberies carried out by a so-called ‘antiquarian’ named M.J. Passalacqua, who is said to have promoted himself as a specialist finding Egyptian artifacts for private buyers around the world.
A few months later, in 1823, Nesyamun was purchased by a Leeds banker called John Blades, who procured three mummies for the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, which had been founded in 1819 with the backing of influential professionals from the area: industria
list John Marshall, whose Holbeck mill had the façade of an Egyptian temple, surgeon Charles Thackrah and newspaper owner Edward Baines, to name but a few.
In 1828, amid something of a local sensation, the mummy of Nesyamun was unwrapped before an audience of notaries, the process being overseen by surgeon Thomas Pridgin Teale. A previous mummy owned by the society had disappointingly been found to have been eaten by beetles when it was unwrapped, so there was hope that the mummy of Nesyamun would be better preserved. The body was contained within two coffins. The outer coffin was constructed of sycamore, and was in the shape of a man with his arms crossed on his chest (coffins were pre-made in male and female forms). The face painted on the lid did not belong to Nesyamun: it was a generic image. Only the rich and powerful members of royal families could afford to have bespoke coffins decorated with their own likeness. The coffin, which had a yellow background, had been decorated with scenes and hieroglyphics from the Book of the Dead, intended to offer magical protection and enable Nesyamun to safely reach the underworld. There were about thirty such scenes on the coffin.
After carefully removing the body from the two coffins, the linen wrappings which covered the entire mummy were removed layer by layer, some forty layers in all. The outer wrappings were of finely woven, narrow linen of very good quality. As each layer was removed, the cloth became increasingly coarser and wider. Papyri, jewellery and tiny ornaments were found between some layers, which had been deliberately placed there for use by Nesyamun in the afterlife. One leather ornament could be dated to pinpoint the period during which he had died, and he was the only known surviving mummy from that period, making his existence of real importance for historical and scientific research.
The Curse of the Pharaohs' Tombs Page 17