by Red Pine
Shravasti: This was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kaushala. In his Maha Prajnaparamita Shastra, Nagarjuna says the city had a population of 900,000, and it overshadowed even Magadha’s capital of Rajagriha during the fifth century B.C. Today, its ruins can be visited twenty kilometers west of the town of Balrampur on the train line between Lucknow and Gorakhpur. Some commentators say the city’s name came from that of its founder, King Shravasta. Others say the name was derived from the sage Savattha, who lived there before the city was built.
Anathapindada Garden in Jeta Forest: During the Buddha’s day, there was a wealthy merchant in Shravasti named Sudatta. Since he often helped the unfortunate, he was called Anathapindada (the Benefactor). One day, while visiting his son’s prospective in-laws in Rajagriha, Sudatta had the good fortune of hearing the Buddha speak and was so affected by what he heard that he invited the Bhagavan to Shravasti. But when Sudatta returned to find a suitable residence for the Buddha and his disciples, the only place that seemed to him sufficiently spacious and serene was the forested preserve of Crown Prince Jeta, two kilometers southwest of the city. When Sudatta inquired about buying it, the prince joked, “I’ll sell you whatever portion you can cover with gold.” Taking the prince at his word, Sudatta went home and brought back enough gold to cover an area of two hundred acres that became known as Anathapindada Garden. Overcome by Sudatta’s sincerity, the prince donated the entire forest to the Buddha’s congregation, and together the two men built a vihara, or monastery, where the Buddha could live and preach whenever he visited. These events are said to have occurred in the fourth year of the Buddha’s ministry, or in 428 B.C. Altogether, the Buddha spent twenty-five rainy seasons at Jeta Vihara and delivered many of his most important sermons there. He also performed a series of miracles in Shravasti that were unique in his career, and it was also in Shravasti that he refuted the teachings of the leaders of other spiritual sects.
Although it remains in the background, the Buddha’s retreat represents the outcome of charity and forbearance, the two perfections, which, together with the perfection of wisdom, are extolled in this sutra as leading to buddhahood. The word anatha means “without reliance,” and pinda-dada means “to give offerings.” Normally, this compound is interpreted, as above, to mean “benefactor” or “to give offerings to those without means.” But it can also mean “to give offerings without attachment,” which is the practice praised throughout this sutra. Thus, the place where this sutra was spoken is more than an example of its teaching. It is the teaching.
Textual note: Some Sanskrit scholars prefer to add ekasmin samaye (one time) to the previous phrase, which is how the Tibetan punctuates this and also how Conze translates it: “Thus have I heard at one time.”
together with the full assembly of 1250 bhikshus and a great many fearless bodhisattvas.
1250: The number of bhikshus was made up primarily of the three Kashyapa brothers and their disciples, who totaled 1,000 members. Hence, it was quite natural for the elder of the three, Uruvilva, or Maha Kashyapa, to assume leadership of the First Council after the Buddha’s Nirvana. In addition, the assembly also included Shariputra, Maudgalyayana, Yashas, and their disciples. Thus, by converting these six men, the Buddha attracted a group of 1250 disciples who were present at many of his sermons and who were known collectively as the mahata bhikshu-samgha (full assembly of monks). Commentators suggest the reason the Buddha’s first five disciples were not included in this number is that the figure was rounded off.
Bhikshu: Although this Sanskrit term means “one who begs” (for instruction from buddhas and for food from others), it also means “one who eliminates evil.” In this form, it applies only to monks. The term for nuns is bhikshuni. Although monks alone are mentioned at the beginning of this sutra, nuns, as well as laymen and laywomen, are listed among those present at the end of the sutra, and nuns are also present at other assemblies that make up the Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra. Hence, their omission here is curious and perhaps was intended to present the monks in isolation and in contrast to the noble sons and daughters who are seen outdoing them in the practice of this teaching.
Bodhisattva: Depending on the interpretation one gives sattva, this term means “spiritual warrior” (see Hardayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, p. 9) or “spiritual being,” which is the more common, if less interesting, interpretation. The term originally referred to ascetics of various religious traditions but was eventually taken over by Buddhists and was extended not only to monks but to nuns as well as to male and female householders who devoted themselves to achieving enlightenment for others as well as for themselves. Thus, the term was used to represent the Mahayana ideal with its emphasis on compassion and wisdom as opposed to the Hinayana ideal of the arhan with its emphasis on morality and meditation.
Throughout this sutra, bodhisattva is modified by mahasattva, which I have translated as “fearless.” Normally, mahasattva is interpreted quite literally as “great being,” as Purna does in the Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines, when he says to the Buddha, “One who is called a mahasattva puts on the great armor, sets forth on the great path, and rides the great vehicle. Such a being is called a mahasattva.” (1) However, this term was first applied not to humans but to lions and only later to those who had the courage of the king of beasts. Hence, it was used to suggest the difficulties facing those who set forth on the bodhisattva path as well as to praise them for such aspiration. Also, without fearlessness, no progress on this path is possible.
This initial section lists the six things necessary for a sermon on the Dharma: belief (thus), a witness (I have heard), a time (once), a speaker, (the Buddha), a place (Shravasti), and an audience (bhikshus and bodhisattvas). A sutra cannot exist without the presence of all six. Hence, they are placed at the beginning.
Textual note: Among Chinese editions, the presence of the Sanskrit sanbahulais ca bodhisattvais mahasattvais (and a great number of fearless bodhisattvas) is reflected only in the translation of Yi-ching. A number of commentators suggest this was added to our extant Sanskrit editions (as well as to the one that formed the basis of Yi-ching’s translation) by followers of the Mahayana. However, in Chapter Two Subhuti says that fearless bodhisattvas are blessed by the Buddha’s daily example. Hence, bodhisattvas must be in the audience. At the end of the sutra, they also appear in the translations of Bodhiruci and Yi-ching, while laymen and laywomen are present in Chapter Thirty-two in all Chinese translations. Also, since “fearless bodhisattvas” and “noble sons and daughters” are referred to interchangeably throughout this sutra, their omission here must be either a reflection of the standard sutra opening or a device to focus attention on the monastics, who have become attached to the Hinayana ideal of the passionless arhan and indifferent to the welfare of others.
One day before noon, the Bhagavan put on his
patched robe and picked up his bowl and entered
the capital of Shravasti for offerings.
Before noon: Dawn is when gods eat; noon is when buddhas eat; dusk is when animals eat; and midnight is when spirits eat. Thus, it was the Buddha’s custom to eat his one daily meal at midday, after which he ate nothing until the following day. Although this custom is still followed by the Buddhists of South and Southeast Asia, it has been relaxed, if not ignored, by those in colder climates. Seng-chao comments, “When food is cooked, this is when everyone has something and when thoughts of giving easily arise.” Thus, monks begged for food when householders were preparing their midday meal.
Patched robe: The Buddha designated three robes for monks: one of five patches for daily activities, for sitting and for sleeping; one of seven patches worn on top of the one of five patches for preaching the Dharma; and one of nine (sometimes twenty-five) patches for going about in public or entering a private residence. Here, this last kind of robe, called a civara, is meant. Thus, when the Buddha later takes this robe off and puts it away, he is still wearing his other garments. Th
ese two simpler robes were usually made of plain, undyed cloth, while the civara was invariably saffron-yellow—thus it was also called a kashaya (saffron-yellow). The sight that finally prompted Shakyamuni to leave home was that of an ascetic wearing such a robe. Also, the night of his flight from the palace, he is said to have met a hunter trying to deceive deer by wearing a similar robe, for which Shakyamuni gladly exchanged his princely garments.
Bowl: The bowl, or patra, was called “the vessel of humility,” and the Vinaya, or rules of the Buddhist order, established limits as to its size, material, and color. In the Buddha’s day, most bowls were made of iron in order to withstand being banged about during the constant wandering of the monks. However, bowls of clay and stone were also used, and the Buddha’s own bowl was made of purple stone. It was said to have been the bowl used by Vipashyin, the first buddha of the present kalpa, and was given to Shakyamuni by the Guardians of the Four Quarters following his Enlightenment.
Offerings: The Sanskrit term used here for “offering” is pinda, which refers to any lump, but especially a lump of food. In ancient India, the main staple was glutinous rice, which was eaten with the hands by forming it into balls. The term pinda occurs again at the end of the sutra in Chapter Thirty, where it includes the biggest of all lumps: a universe of a billion worlds. This is not accidental, for the practice of charity and the concept of an entity, either compounded of smaller entities or compounding a greater entity, run throughout this sutra. In the chapters that follow, the Buddha takes us through a series of synonyms for the entities of reality and compares the results of offering such things as a ball of rice, a universe of jewels, numberless existences, or a four-line poem.
Whereas most sutras begin with some miraculous event, such as the quaking of the earth or the radiation of light from the Buddha’s brow, the Diamond Sutra begins with the Buddha’s everyday routine and stresses the importance of charity, along with its counterpart of forbearance, and the perspective of prajna wisdom in the practice of both. Thus, the Buddha begins his instruction with his own example and uses an example that involves benefit to others as well as oneself.
Textual note: Kumarajiva and Bodhiruci give the time as shih-shih (when it was time to eat).
After begging for food in the city and eating his
meal of rice, he returned from his daily round in the
afternoon, put his robe and bowl away, washed his
feet, and sat down on the appointed seat. After
crossing his legs and adjusting his body, he turned
his awareness to what was before him.
Begging for food in the city: It was the Buddha’s custom to go from one door to the next and not to visit more than seven households on any given day. Nor did he pass up the doors of the poor and lowly in order to receive food from the wealthy and noble. For the Buddha’s compassion was even-handed and free from bias. In his final Testament Sutra, the Buddha said, “You monks should cultivate with diligence. Renounce fashion and beauty, put on the faded robe, take up the vessel of humility, and support yourselves by begging. And when you do so, should feelings of pride arise, get rid of them at once. To become inflated by pride is unfitting for white-robed worldly people. How much more so for those who have left home and set forth on the Path. For the sake of liberation, humble yourselves and practice begging.”
Chiang Wei-nung says, “The purpose of begging is to conquer egotism and arrogance, to overcome attachment to flavor and taste, to concentrate the mind on cultivating the Way, and to cause others to be embarrassed. A monk leaves home to liberate others. But to liberate others, he must first put an end to their delusions. And to put an end to their delusions, he must practice austerities so that those who see him think to themselves, ‘Here is someone who takes on hardships to liberate others. How can I continue indulging in food and comfort?’ And as thoughts of the Way increase, worldly thoughts decrease. Thus does begging greatly benefit others.”
Returned: The abode to which the Buddha returned was the monastic retreat of Jeta Vihara built for him and his followers several decades earlier by Prince Jeta and Sudatta for the order’s use during the monsoon season.
In the afternoon: The text is ambiguous here. The Sanskrit pashcad bhakta-pinda-pata, literally means “after eating food.” However, since this is already expressed in the previous phrase by krta-bhakta-krtyas (eating his meal of rice), this second expression, according to Edgerton, simply indicates time and was often used as a stock term to indicate the period after the noon meal. Whereas both Conze and Müller agree with this interpretation of the text, all Chinese translations, except that of Dharmagupta, have the Buddha eating his meal after he returns, which remains the practice called for in the Vinaya for monks and nuns. However, as the Buddha’s reputation grew, he and his disciples were often invited to take their noon meal in the homes of wealthy householders, and perhaps this was such an occasion.
Put his robe and bowl away: The robe and bowl are the two most important possessions of a monk or nun. Hence, they were put away after use. They also represent the spirit of one’s teacher, and in the Zen sect they became the symbols by which transmission of the patriarchship was established and, for a while, maintained.
Washed his feet: Neither the Buddha nor his disciples wore shoes or sandals. Thus, the Buddha washed off the dust of the road before ascending the teacher’s seat.
Sat down on the appointed seat: There is some difference of opinion concerning the Buddha’s seat. Most translators and commentators interpret prajnapta (arranged) to mean that the Buddha arranged his own seat. But prajnapta is not used as a verb here but as an adjective modifying asane (seat). Still, it is unclear whether the Buddha did the arranging or simply sat down on a seat that had been arranged for him. I have decided in favor of the latter and translated prajnapta as “appointed.” Conze has “arranged for him,” while Müller has “intended for him.” Also, according to the Perfection of Wisdom in Seven Hundred Lines, the seat on which the Buddha delivered his discourses was just outside his cell or dwelling.
When the Buddha sat down, he often did so on freshly cut kusha grass over which he spread out a mat. And it was this custom that probably influenced the interpretations of other translators here. But an asane was not this sort of seat. Elsewhere in the Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra, it is called the “Lion Seat.” While sitting on this seat, which was more like a large stool, the Buddha delivered many of his sermons. Also, the Buddha did not always instruct his disciples after the noon meal. But by sitting down on this seat, he indicated to them that he was now prepared to do so.
Crossed his legs: To sit cross-legged is to assume the meditation posture whereby one’s circulation of energy is more easily and more powerfully focused. In addition to crossing one’s legs, one’s back is also aligned and one’s gaze is fixed on the space before one’s body. According to the Maha Prajnaparamita Shastra, “There are five reasons to sit cross-legged. First, it is the best way to relax the body. Second, it prevents the body from becoming tired. Third, it is not discussed in the texts of heretics. Fourth, it instills respect from others. And fifth, it is praised by all sages.” (30)
Chiang Wei-nung says, “Unfortunate suffering beings, the rich as well as the poor, spend their lives working for food and clothes. No matter what kind of job they do, they all work for food. They get up in the morning and hurry into the city to work. Working for food is important. But when your work is done, you should return to your own place. The problem with most people is that for the sake of food and clothes they run around like beggars and eventually forget who they are and no longer return to their own place. When your work is done, don’t involve yourself in what doesn’t concern you. Thus, the Buddha sits down and focuses on the thought before him.”
Hsu-fa says, “The Buddha puts on his robe and takes up his bowl to uphold the precepts of morality. He washes his feet and takes his seat to enter meditation. Thus does morality give birth to meditation and meditation to wisdom. Also, by entering
the city with his robe and bowl, he goes from the noumenal into the phenomenal. By washing his feet and taking his seat, he goes from the phenomenal into the noumenal. It is only by remaining unattached to the noumenal as well as the phenomenal that undifferentiated prajna can be realized.”
Turned his awareness to what was before him: Elsewhere in the Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra, the Buddha begins his discourses after entering what is called the King of Samadhis, or Deepest of Trances. Here, in keeping with the tenor of this more down-to-earth discourse, the Buddha simply practices mindfulness. Normally four subjects of mindfulness are distinguished as an essential part of meditation. The first of these is kaya-smirti-upasthana (mindfulness of the body). The others are mindfulness regarding vedana (sensations), citta (thoughts), and dharma (dharmas). All of these are dealt with in the chapters that follow, but here the text specifies pratimukhim-smirtim-upasthapya, where pratimukhi simply refers to whatever is present, whatever one is facing. Since the primary subject of this sutra is the nature of the buddha’s body, this can be viewed as the beginning of a meditation on the body of reality, which is the Buddha’s true body, his dharma body. Kumarajiva alone among translators omits any mention of the Buddha’s practice of mindfulness here.
Taken together, the Buddha’s actions in this first chapter represent the Six Paramitas, or Perfections. Picking up his begging bowl, the Buddha practices the perfection of charity. Donning his monk’s robe, he practices the perfection of morality. Begging in the city, he practices the perfection of forbearance. Eating his meal, returning to his abode, putting away his robe and bowl, and washing his feet, he practices the perfection of vigor. Sitting down and focusing on what is before him, he practices the perfection of meditation. And remaining unattached throughout the practice of these five perfections, the Buddha practices the perfection of wisdom. Thus, the first chapter contains a brief but practical introduction to the teaching of all six perfections.