Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing

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Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing Page 49

by Laura J. Snyder


  Vergara, Alejandro, and Mariët Westermann, eds. 2003. Vermeer y el interior holandés: Del 19 de febrero al 18 de mayo, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, 2003. Madrid: Museo Nacional del Prado.

  Wadum, Jørgen. 1995. “Vermeer in Perspective.” In Duparc and Wheelock, eds., Johannes Vermeer, 67–79.

  ———. 1998. “Contours of Vermeer.” In Gaskell and Jonker, eds., Vermeer Studies, 201–23.

  Wadum, Jørgen, René Hoppenbrouwers, and Luuk Struick van der Loeff. 1995. Vermeer Illuminated: A Report on the View of Delft and the Girl with a Pearl Earring by Johannes Vermeer. The Hague: V + K Publishers/Inmerc.

  Wallert, Arie. 2007. “A Peculiar Emblematic Still-Life Painting from Johannes Torrentius.” Art Matters 4: 54–67.

  Webster, Charles. 1976. The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine and Reform, 1626–1660. New York: Holmes & Meier.

  Weld, Charles Richard. 1848. A History of the Royal Society. 2 vols. London: Parker.

  Welu, James A. 1975. “Vermeer: His Cartographic Sources.” Art Bulletin 57 (4): 529–47.

  ———. 1978. “The Map in Vermeer’s ‘Art of Painting.’” Imago Mundi 30: 9–30.

  ———. 1986. “Vermeer’s Astronomer: Observations on an Open Book.” Art Bulletin 68 (2): 263–67.

  Welu, James A., and Pieter Biesboer, eds. 1993. Judith Leyster: A Dutch Master and Her World. New Haven: Yale University Press.

  Wenczel, Norma. 2007. “The Optical Camera Obscura II: Images and Texts.” In Lefèvre, ed., Inside the Camera Obscura, 13–30.

  Westermann, Mariët. 1996. A Wordly Art: The Dutch Republic, 1585–1718. New Haven: Yale University Press.

  ———. 2003. “Vermeer and the Interior Imagination.” In Vergara and Westermann, eds., Vermeer y el interior holandés, 219–34.

  ———. 2004. Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675). Amsterdam: Waanders Publishers/Rijksmuseum.

  Weststeijn, Thijs, 2008. The Visible World: Samuel van Hoogstraten’s Art Theory and the Legitimation of Painting in the Dutch Golden Age. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

  ———, ed. 2013. The Universal Art of Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627–1678): Painter, Writer, and Courtier. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

  Wheelock, Arthur K. 1977. “Constantijn Huygens and Early Attitudes towards the Camera Obscura.” History of Photography 1 (2): 93–103.

  ———. 1977. Perspective, Optics, and Delft Artists around 1650. New York: Garland.

  ———. 1988. Jan Vermeer. New York: Harry N. Abrams.

  ———. 1995. Vermeer and the Art of Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press.

  ———. 1995. “Vermeer of Delft: His Life and His Artistry.” In Duparc and Wheelock, eds., Johannes Vermeer, pp. 15–30.

  ———. 2012. “‘Guillelmo’ in Amsterdam: Van Aelst’s Painterly Style in Amsterdam.” In Paul, Clifton, and Wheelock, eds., Elegance and Refinement, 37–49.

  ———. 2014. “Johannes Vermeer.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed Dec. 18, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/626156/Johannes-Vermeer/233666/Artistic-training-and-early-influences.

  Wilson, Catherine. 1995. The Invisible World: Early Modern Philosophy and the Invention of the Microscope. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

  Wirth, Carsten. 2007. “The Camera Obscura as a Model of a New Concept of Mimesis in 17th Century Painting.” In Lefèvre, ed., Inside the Camera Obscura, 149–94.

  Wittkower, Rudolf. 1963. Born under Saturn: The Character and Conduct of Artists: A Documented History from Antiquity to the French Revolution. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

  Wolf, Bryan Jay. 2001. Vermeer and the Invention of Seeing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Wotton, Henry. 1907. The Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton, edited by Logan Pearsall Smith. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  Wren, Christopher. 1669. “An Instrument for Drawing in Perspective.” Philosophical Transactions 4: 898–99.

  Yalcin, Fatma. 2013. “Van Hoogstraten’s Success in Britain.” In Weststeijn, ed., The Universal Art of Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627–1678), 161–82.

  Yiu, Yvonne. 2005. “The Mirrror and Painting in Early Renaissance Texts.” Early Science and Medicine 10 (2): 187–210.

  Zuylen, J. van. 1981. “The Microscopes of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.” Journal of Microscopy 121 (3): 309–28.

  ———. 1982. “The Microscopes of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.” In Palm and Snelders, eds., Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, 1632–1723, 29–55.

  Index

  Page numbers beginning with 331 refer to endnotes.

  abstractionism, 282–83

  Accademia dei Lincei, 61, 65

  Accademia del Cimento, Florence, 236

  Acquet, Hendrik d’, 160–61

  Act of Seclusion (1654), 167

  Addison, Joseph, 305

  Ad Vitellionem paralipomena (Kepler), 87

  Aelst, Evert van, 28, 29, 143, 270, 337

  Aelst, Willem van, 28–29, 143, 225

  Africa, 14

  Aglionby, William, 17, 26, 47

  agricultural techniques, Dutch Republic’s devlopment of, 16

  air pumps, 5

  Albert, Archduke of Austria, 60

  Alberti, Leon Battista, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 142

  Alberti veil (intersection), 84–85, 102, 139, 298

  alchemy, alchemists, 136

  secrecy of, 260–61

  Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 241

  Aleandro, Girolamo, 64–65

  Aleurobius, 313

  Alexander VII, Pope (Fabio Chigi), 39

  Alhazen (Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham), 77–78, 125–26, 130, 348, 360

  Allart, Huyck, 218

  amoeba, 303–4

  Amstel River, 51

  Amsterdam, 26, 29, 53, 207, 238, 338

  cloth trade in, 53

  Flemish printers in, 52

  guilds in, 52

  as hub of European art market, 53

  immigrants in, 52

  as industrial capital of Dutch Republic, 53

  Leeuwenhoek in, 50, 51–52, 54–55

  as mapmaking center, 217

  Plan of the Three Canals in, 51–52

  population of, 51, 52

  prostitutes and brothels in, 54

  religious and political toleration in, 52

  stock exchange (bourse) of, 53, 211

  anatomical theaters, 7, 238–39, 244

  artists and, 160, 239

  as research centers, 239

  anatomy:

  dissections and, see dissections

  Dutch discoveries in, 231

  mechanistic approaches to, 140, 360–61

  microscopic investigations of, 235, 237–38, 239–40, 248–49

  Anglo-Dutch wars:

  First (1652–54), 67, 182

  Second (1665–67), 182–83, 234

  Third (1672–78), 207–11, 229–30, 262

  Anguillula (vinegar eels), Leeuwenhoek’s investigation of, 258–59

  animals:

  anatomy of, see anatomy

  reproduction in, see generation

  viviparous, 242, 245, 259

  Antilles, 14

  Antwerp, 15, 21

  apertures, 61

  of camera obscura, 125–26, 127

  apprentices, of artists, 28–37

  aquamarine, 34–35

  “aqueous humor,” 114

  Aristophanes, 56

  Aristotelians, 317

  as contradicted by observation, 122, 135, 186–87

  Galileo’s ridiculing of, 186–87

  rigid beliefs of, 5, 7, 9, 120, 186–87

  Aristotle, 5, 7, 9, 57, 76, 82, 135, 186, 242, 324, 347

  on generation, 243

  Arithmeticae et geomitrae practica (Metius), 163

  Ars magna (Kircher), 357

  art, 8

  Dutch as consumers of, 25–26

  interconnectedness of science and, 9–11

  as mirror of nature, 8

  and new conception
of seeing, see learning to see

  optical instruments and, 8, 101–2

  photography as, 322

  as “scientific,” 136

  technology and, 321–22

  see also artists; painting

  art dealers, 37, 212, 216, 267, 336

  artists:

  anatomical theaters and, 160, 239

  apprenticeships of, 28–37

  camera obscura used by, 128–29, 142, 285–86, 361, 365

  compasses used by, 83–84

  direct observation emphasized by, 136

  magnifying glases used by, 10–11

  mapmaking by, 221–22

  mirrors used by, 81–83, 98, 157

  as natural philosophers, 10–11, 12

  optical instruments used by, 101–2, 137, 139, 185, 318, 320, 321–22, 324–25

  as secretive about methods, 142–43

  theology and, 224–25

  workshops and studios of, 36–37

  see also art; painting

  artists’ guilds, 27, 37

  see also St. Luke’s Guild

  asphericity, 133

  Assyria, 56

  Ast, Balthasar van der, 155

  Astronomer, The (Vermeer), 217, 218–19, 281, 366

  Leeuwenhoek as possible model for, 162–63, 325

  astronomers, mapmaking and, 219

  Astronomiae pars optica (Kepler), 357

  atomists, 236

  Aubrey, John, 289

  Ausonio, Ettore, 129

  authority, rejection of, 324

  Averlino, Antonio di Pietro (Filarete), 82, 90

  Avicenna, 140

  Baburen, Dirck van, 74

  The Procuress, 74

  Bacon, Francis, 4, 131, 135, 169, 190, 312, 370

  artists’ awareness of ideas of, 222–23

  Dutch enthusiasm for, 190–91, 222–23

  Huygens and, 190

  on microscopes, 189–90

  observation valued over logic by, 186, 187, 188–89, 200, 288

  theology and, 191–92

  Bacon, Roger, 126

  bacteria, 304

  Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of, 257

  Baen, Genesius, 162

  Baerle, Suzanna van (Suzanna Huygens), 168, 172

  Bagijnhof, Delft, 49

  Baglivi, Giorgio, 206

  Baker, Henry, 303, 304

  Balthasar Gerritsz., 225

  in counterfeiting scheme, 23–24

  bankruptcy:

  of Catharina Bolnes, 273–74

  laws of, 174

  Banks, Joseph, 261

  Barbaro, Daniele, 127–28, 134, 151

  Barberini, Cardinal, 39

  Bardone, Paris, 228

  barometers, 5, 106

  Bartolotti house, Amsterdam, 26

  Bassen, Bartholomeus van:

  Imaginary Palace for the Winter King, 155

  The Tomb of William the Silent in an Imaginary Church, 155

  Bayle, Pierre, 202

  bedriegertjes, 138

  Beeck, Johannes Symonsz. van der, see Torrentius, Johannes

  Beeckman, Isaac, 58, 236, 370

  Behn, Aphra, 234

  Bempden, Jodocus van den, 178

  Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 129

  Benthuizen, 49, 113

  Bentivoglio, Guido, 60

  Berch, Catharina Jacobs. van den, 45

  Berch, Cornelis Jacobsz. van den, 49–50, 112–13

  Berch, Johan Sebastiaensz. van den, 50

  Berch, Magdalena Jacobs. van den, 45

  Berch, Magriete “Grietge” van der, 50, 70, 230

  marriage of Jacob Molijn and, 47

  marriage of Philips Leeuwenhoek and, 45, 46, 47

  Berch, Margaretha van den, 161

  Berch, Sebastiaen Cornelisz. van den, 50

  Berch, van den, family, 166

  Berckhout, Pieter Teding van, 174

  Bergh, Daniel de, 165

  Bergh, Gillis de, 165

  Bergh, Mateus de, 165

  Berkeley, George, 116

  Berkelse-Lake, 251–52

  Berkenrode, Balthasar Florisz. van, 217–18

  Berkenrode-Blaeu map, 217–18, 311

  Beyeren, Abraham van, 226

  Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 220

  Bie, Cornelis de, 8

  Blaeu, Willem Jansz., 217–18, 219

  Blake, William, 305

  Blazing World, The (Cavendish), 170

  Bleyswijck, Dirck van, 20, 22, 69

  Bloemaert, Abraham, 41, 337–38

  blood, Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of corpuscles in, 248–49

  Boerhaave, Herman, 190–91, 292

  Boitet, 160, 161, 298

  Bol, Ferdinand, 178

  Bolnes, Catharina, 40, 41–43, 46, 71, 176, 271, 282, 338

  bankruptcy petition of, 273–74

  Catholicism of, 38, 40

  children of, 71, 95, 178, 179, 212, 383

  death of, 282

  inventory of property of, 272–73

  separation of assets of Vermeer and, 274

  and settlement of Vermeer’s estate, 268, 271–77, 282

  Vermeer’s courtship and marriage of, 37–43, 166, 338

  and Vermeer’s death, 267–68

  Bolnes, Cornelia, 41, 46

  Bolnes, Reynier, 40

  Bolnes, Willem, 275

  Bologna, 239

  silk industry in, 240

  Boogert, François, 166

  Boogert, Jan, 166, 263

  Borch, Gerard ter, 94, 216, 338

  Soldier Offering a Young Woman Coins, 75

  bordeeltje (brothel scenes), 74

  Boreel, Willem, 345

  Borel, Pierre, 65, 114, 197–98, 200, 248–49

  Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 235–36

  Borghese, Cardinal Scipione, 60

  Boswell, William, 190

  Bourne, William, 90, 129

  bourse (stock exchange), Amsterdam, 53, 211

  Boyle, Robert, 63, 132, 141, 175, 184, 185, 196, 236, 237

  as alchemist, 261

  Brahe, Tycho, 57–58, 82, 127, 219

  brain, visual centers of, 320–21

  Bramer, Leonaert, 37–38, 338

  Brammer, Pieter, 13

  Brazil, 14

  Breda, Peace of (1667), 168, 183

  breweries, in Delft, 18–19, 21, 22–23, 46

  Brewster, David, 56

  Bril, Paul, 171

  brothel scenes (bordeeltje), 74

  Brouncker, William, Viscount, 184, 277–78

  Browne, William, 164

  Bruges, 15

  Brugghen, Gerard ter, 32

  Brugghen, Hendrik ter, 171

  Brunelleschi, Filippo, 78–79, 84

  perspective theory of, 78

  Burch, Hendrick van der, 70n, 270–71

  Burch, Jannetge van der, 70

  Burch, Margrieta van den, 230

  Burch, Rochers van der, 70n

  Burch, W. V., 263

  Burnet, Gilbert, 292

  burning glasses, 55, 56

  see also magnifying glasses

  Busby, Richard, 195–96

  Buyten, Hendrick van, 176, 271–72, 286, 384

  cabinets of curiosities, 14, 135–36, 155, 160–61, 222, 292

  calculus, 207

  Calvinists, Calvinism, 25, 47, 54, 192, 224

  camera obscura, 2–4, 10, 12, 29, 130–31, 167, 357

  aperture of, 125–26, 127

  artists’ use of, 128–29, 142, 285–86, 361, 365

  astronomers’ use of, 125, 126–27, 130

  box-type, 123–24, 131–34, 143, 185, 331, 355, 362

  brightness range narrowed by, 148

  Canaletto’s use of, 144, 362

  coining of term, 130, 357

  concentration of color by, 149

  convex lenses in, 127–28

  diaphragm in, 128, 151

  “disks of confusion” produced by, 151

  of Drebbel, 123–24, 132–33, 332, 355

 
eye compared to, 140, 141, 360, 361

  Huygens and, 123–24, 132–33, 143, 167, 172, 332, 355

  learning to see and, 141

  lenses of, 127–28, 133–34

  mapmaking and, 220–21

  mirrors in, 129

  optical principle behind, 125

  perspective theory and, 146–47

  shadows and, 149

  spherical aberration in, 150, 151

  Steadman on Vermeer’s use of, 153–56

  and topographical drawings, 130, 131, 144, 164

  Van Hoogstraten and, 138

  Vanvitelli’s use of, 144–45, 362

  Vermeer’s possible use of, 143–57, 215, 220–21, 297, 315–16, 318, 324–25, 364–65

  see also solar microscopes

  Canaletto, camera obscura used by, 144, 362

  canvas:

  painting on, 30–31

  standardized sizes of, 156

  capillaries:

  Leeuwenhoek’s observations of, 292

  Malpighi’s discovery of, 240

  carnelian (Florence Lake), 34

  Cartesians, Cartesianism, 237, 238, 288–89

  see also Descartes, René

  cataracts, 57, 116

  Catholics, Catholicism, 6, 38–40, 41, 48–49, 232

  in Delft, 38–39, 49, 210, 232

  in Dutch Republic, 38–39, 48–49

  marriages of Protestants and, 38

  Protestant antipathy toward, 38–39

  scientific inquiry stifled by, 192

  Vermeer’s conversion to, 38, 49, 73

  Cats, Jacob, 40, 192

  Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle upon Tyne, 170, 235, 241, 305, 380

  cells, Hooke’s discovery and naming of, 198

  Cesariano, Cesare, 128

  Cesi, Federico, 61, 65, 114, 197

  Ceylon, 14

  Charles I, King of England, 124n, 167, 170

  Charles II, King of England, 168, 176, 182, 184, 199, 211, 229, 234, 266, 291

  Cheselden, William, 116–17, 321

  chiaroscuro, 75

  children, childhood:

  birth festivities for, 178–79

  deaths of, 178

  in Dutch Republic, 46–47

  cholera, 305

  Christ Church, Oxford, 196

  Christina, Queen of Sweden, 187

  chromatic aberration, 120, 178–79, 205, 206

  Cigoli, Lodovico, 85–86, 140

  Ciliates, 252n

  Claes Gerritsz., 225

  in counterfeiting scheme, 23–24

  Claesz, Pieter, 106n

  Claude glass, 91

  clothing, cost of, 101

  cloth trade, 50, 53, 203

  in Dutch Republic, 50, 54–55

  global aspects of, 55

  Leeuwenhoek’s apprenticeship in, 50, 51, 54–55

  magnifying classes used in, 55

  Clouds, The (Aristophanes), 56

  cochineal beetle, 34

  Cocq, Dirck de, 212

 

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