3 EMIGRATION. Besides the state-organized settlement in colonies, there was a widespread and increasing private emigration from Italy during the last two centuries of the Republic, both to the Western Mediterranean and to the Greek East. This movement has been carefully studied by A. J. N. Wilson, Emigration from Italy in the Republican Age of Rome (1966), who examines the volume, the kinds of communities formed overseas by the emigrants, their motives and origins, the areas settled, and the relations of the settlers with the people among whom they lived. On emigration see also P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower (1971), 159 ff. [p. 148]
3a URBANIZATION. On the development of the cities of Italy in the first century B.C. see E. Gabba, Studi classici e orientali, 1972, 73 ff. [p. 148]
4 TRADE IN THE EAST. In general see J. Hatzfeld, Les Trafiquants italiens dans l’Orient hellénique (1919), and for the Italians at Delos see W. A. Laidlaw, A History of Delos (1933), ch. vi. Also A. J. N. Wilson, op. cit., 85 ff. Brunt (Italian Manpower, 224 ff.) believes that the figure of 80,000 Italians who were said to have been massacred by Mithridates is grossly exaggerated, and consequently the number of Italians in Asia Minor was less than is usually supposed. [p. 149]
5 WRECKED ROMAN SHIPS. For the Mahdia wreck (cf. Rev. Arch., 1911) and recent discoveries see Ph. Diôle, Four Thousand Years under the Sea (1954), and Fr. Benoit, Rivista di Studi Liguri, 1952, 237 ff. [p. 149]
6 SOCIAL LIFE. See Warde Fowler, Social Life in Rome in the Days of Cicero (1909). On the position of woman, see J. P. Balsdon, Roman Women (1962). Most aspects of the social scene are discussed in Balsdon’s excellent Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome (1969). See also R. MacMullen, Roman Social Relations, 50 BC–A.D. 284 (1974). [p. 151]
7 EQUITES AND THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. See above p. 8 f. and n. 9. In the early days the Equites had served as cavalry and were enrolled in the centuriate Assembly in 18 centuriae as Equites equo publico. Later they became an élite corps whose exclusiveness was gradually undermined, and precise definition becomes increasingly difficult. This is particularly so in the period between Gaius Gracchus and Sulla. The class to whom the former transferred the repetundae court was more probably defined by a financial qualification than by equestrian status (cf. ch. II, n. 31 above); they were perhaps strictly Gracchani iudices rather than Equites, but the latter name is commonly (and conveniently) applied to them. After Sulla all reference to equo publico is irrelevant and membership of the Equestrian Order could apparently be claimed by any Roman citizen with sufficient wealth. Further, with the enfranchisement of Italy in 90 the number of potential Knights was greatly increased. Thus in the late Republic the word Equites covered a great variety of people: an aristocratic group in Rome, leading men from colonies and municipia, the publicani many of whom had made great fortunes through their state contracts and tax-collecting and who mostly will have become socially respectable by their investment in land, and the negotatores, the private financiers and business men who had made good; nor must we forget the country squires, wealthy enough to qualify as members of the Order, who preferred a quiet life to the hurly-burly of either business or public service. Thus Equites were of many kinds, and it was primarily the publicani and Gracchan iudices (probably largely identical) who were interested in politics and who often clashed with the Senate. See M. R. Cimma, Ricerche sulle società di publicani (1981). [p. 151]
8 ATTICUS. The 16 books of Cicero’s Letters to Atticus reveal the character of both men. See G. Bosisier, Cicero and his Friends (1897), pp. 123 ff. [p. 151]
9 THE PLEBS. See Z. Yavetz, ‘Plebs sordida’, Athenaeum, 1965, 295 ff., ‘Levitas popularis’, Atene e Roma, 1965, 97 ff., ‘The Living Conditions of the Urban Plebs In Republican Rome’, Latomus, 1958, 500 ff. (=Sealey, Crisis, 162 ff.), and for the late Republic Plebs and Princeps (1969). P. A. Brunt, ‘The Roman Mob’, Past & Present, 1966, 3 ff (reprinted in Studies in Ancient Society, ed. M. I. Finley, 1974, 74 ff.), and also one aspect, A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968). [p. 152]
10 RACE MIXTURE. See T. Frank, An Economic History of Rome2 (1927), 207 ff. for an extreme view. For a criticism of this see N. H. Baynes, IRS, 1943, 32 ff. See also S. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the late Republic (1969) (5 ff. and 32 ff. especially for race mixture). On the free and slave population of Italy see P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower (1971), 121 ff. [p. 152]
11 FESTIVALS, GAMES AND VENATIONES. Of the old religious festivals (feriae) recorded in the Roman calander some had become relatively obscure but others (e.g. the Lupercalia and Saturnalia) remained great public holidays. The six older Games (Ludi Romani, Plebeii, Apollinares, Ceriales, Megalenses and Florales) continued alongside the new Circenses of Sulla and Caesar. See Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals (1908); H. H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (1981). On the venationes see G. Jennison, Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome (1937): for the Republic, especially ch. iii. For the episode in 55 see Cicero, ad fam. 7, 1, 3; Pliny, NH, 8, 7. Also J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome (1969), 306 ff. (wild beast fighting), 288 ff. (gladiators) and M. Grant, Gladiators (1967). On the attitude of the Romans to animals see J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (1973) and on elephants H. H. Scullard, The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World (1974). [p. 153]
12 THE CITY. In general see G. Lugli, Roma antica: Il centro monumentale (1946); T. Ashby and S. B. Platner, Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (1929). See also E. Nash’s fine Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, 2 vols. (1961–62) for individual buildings. See F. Coarelli, ‘Public building in Rome between the Second Punic War and Sulla’, Papers Brit. Sch. Rome, 1977, 1 ff. For Sulla’s work, E. B. Van Deeman, JRS, 1922, pp. 1 ff. See also D. R. Dudley, Urbs Roma (1967), a source book of classical texts on the city and its monuments, and M. Grant, The Roman Forum (1970). [p. 153]
13 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION. See G. H. Stevenson, Roman Provincial Administration (1939) and CAH, IX, ch. x. For a translation of some important passages see Lewis and Reihhold, Rn. Civ. I, ch. vi. On Roman policy towards the provinces see E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the late Republic2 (1968) and Publicans and Sinners (1972). [p. 154]
14 CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT. On Rome’s attitude to this see A. H. M. Jones, The Greek City (1940), 170 ff. [p. 154]
15 CLERICAL GRADES IN THE CIVIL SERVICE. See A. H. M. Jones, JRS, 1949, 38 ff. [p. 156]
16 SIBYLLINE ORACLES. Cf. ch. VIII, n. 19. Part of an anti-Roman oracle, dating from the Mithridatic Wars, is translated in Lewis and Reinhold, Rn. Civ. I, 377 f., which also gives many passages illustrating Roman misrule (pp. 355 ff.). [p. 158]
CHAPTER X
1 FIRST CENTURY ART. See G. M. A. Richter, Ancient Italy (1955), chs. iii–vi, to which this section owes much; and E. Strong, CAH, IX, ch. xxii. In general see J. M. C. Toynbee, The Art of the Romans (1965); L. Crema, L’Architettura romana (1959); F. E. Brown, Roman Architecture (1961); M. Wheeler, Roman Art and Architecture (1964); A. Boethius and J. B. Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture (1971); R. B. Bandinelli, Rome, the Centre of Power, Roman Art to A.D. 200 (1970); D. Strong, Roman Art (1976). [p. 161]
2 PORTRAITURE. See G. M. A. Richter, JRS, 1955, 39 ff., where the possibility of Egyptian influence is discounted, and J. M. C. Toynbee, Roman Historical Portraits (1978). [p. 162]
3 LATIN POETS. In general see the histories of literature, e.g. H. J. Rose, A. Handbook of Latin Literature (3rd ed. 1966); J. Wight Duff, Literary History of Rome (3rd ed. 1960); T. Frank, Life and Literature in the Roman Republic (1930). See also Gordon Williams, Tradition and Originality in Roman Poetry (1968), detailed analysis of the essential nature of Roman poetry. [p. 162]
4 SATIRE AND LUCILIUS. See J. Wight Duff, Roman Satire (1937). See also W. S. Anderson, ‘Recent Work in Roman Satire (1937–55)’, Class. World, 1956, 33 ff., and ibid. ‘(1955–62)’, Cl. W., 1964, 293 ff., 343 ff. For text and translation of Lucilius’ fragments see E. H. Warmington, ROL, iii. On the events of 133–129 B.C. referred to in the fragments of Lucilius, see W
. J. Raschke, JRS, 1979, 78 ff. [p. 163]
5 TRAGEDY AND COMEDY. See G. E. Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy (1952); M. Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theater2 (1961); W. Beare, The Roman Stage3 (1964); Roman Drama (1965), ed. D. R. Dudley and T. A. Dorey, essays by seven scholars. [p. 163]
6 CATULUS AND CINNA. On Catulus’ work and his supposed literary circle see H. Bardon, La Littérature latine inconnue, I (1952), 115 ff. On Cinna see T. P. Wiseman, Cinna and Poet (1974). [p. 165]
7 CATULLUS. See edition by C. J. Fordyce (1961); cf. E. A. Havelock, The Lyric Genius of Catullus (1939). For recent work, including the problem of the identification of Lesbia, see R. G. C. Levens, Fifty Years of Classical Scholarship (1954), 284 ff. See also G. Highet, Poets in a Landscape (1957), ch. i; T. P. Wiseman, Catullan Questions (1969), and in JRS, 1979, 161 ff. [p. 166]
8 LUCRETIUS. See C. Bailey, Lucretius, 3 vols. (1974). E. E. Sikes, Lucretius, Poet and Philosopher (1936). Lucretius (1965), ed. D. R. Dudley, essays by seven scholars. L. A. Holland, Lucretius and the Transpadanes (1979), discusses the poet’s local, cultural and literary background [p. 166].
9 ROMAN HISTORIANS. For the surving fragments of the lost Roman historians see H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae, 2 vols., (1906–1914). See also OCD, s.v. Historiography, etc., and A. H. McDonald, Fifty Years of Classical Scholarship, 384 ff. Latin Historians (1966), edited by T. A. Dorey, contains a useful account of the annalists by E. Badian. E. Rawson, Cl. Qu., 1972, 158 ff., argued that the annales maximi were not actually widely used by Roman historians, while T. P. Wiseman, Clio’s Cosmetics (1979), 9 ff. suggests that it was Piso rather than the annales that provided the annalistic framework of Roman history. [p. 166]
10 SALLUST. The fragments of his Historiae were edited by B. Maurenbrecher 2 vols. (1891–3). Cf M. L. W. Laistner, The Greater Roman Historians (1947), ch. iii; D. C. Earl, The Political Thought of Sallust (1961). R. Syme, Sallust (1964); G. M. Paul in Latin Historians (see n. 9), ch. iv; A. D. Leeman, A Systematical Bibliography of Sallust, 1879–1964 (1965). [p. 168]
11 ORATORY. The surviving fragments of the Roman orators are edited by E. Malcovati, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta (2nd ed. 1955). Cf. M. L. Clarke Rhetoric at Rome, a Historical Survey (1953); S. F. Bonner, Fifty Years Cl. Sch., 335 ff. On the orators of the late Republic see G. V. Sumner, The Orators in Cicero’s Brutus (1973), and in general G. Kennedy, The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World, 300 B.C.–A.D. 300 (1972)=A History of Rhetoric, vol. ii. [p. 169]
12 ROMAN EDUCATION. See A. Gwynn, Roman Education (1926); H. I. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (1956), 242 ff; S. F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome from the elder Cato to the younger Pliny (1977). [p. 171]
13 RHETORICA AD HERENNIUM. This has been edited by H. Caplan (Loeb Cl. Lib., 1954). [p. 171]
14 LAW AND LAWYERS. See H. F. Jolowicz, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law (2nd ed. 1952), chs. xiii–xviii; F. Schulz, History of Roman Legal Science (1946), pt. ii; B. Nicholas, An Introduction to Roman Law (1962); J. M. Kelly, Roman Litigation (1966); W. Kunkel, An Introduction to Roman Legal and Constitutional History (1966); id., Herkunft und soziale Stellung der römischen Juristen (1952); and above all for law in its social setting of everyday life, J. Crook, Law and Life of Rome (1967). On the ‘sources’ of law in this period see A. Watson, Law Making in the Later Roman Republic (1974); he discusses topics such as the development of the praetor’s edict, attitudes to the XII Tables, and (chs. 10–12) the content of the legal writings; he believes Greek influence to have been very limited [p. 171]
15 STOICS AND EPICUREANS. See M. L. Clarke, The Roman Mind (1956), chs. ii–iii. For Stoicism see above ch. I, n. 12. For Epicureans see A. J. Festugiere, Epicurus and his Gods (1955); on their activities at the end of the Republic see A. Momigliano, JRS, 1941, 149 ff.; B. Farrington, The Faith of Epicurus (1967). [p. 173]
16 CICERO’S THOUGHT. See H. A. K. Hunt, The Humanism of Cicero (1954). [p. 174]
17 ASTROLOGY. See F. H. Cramer, Astrology in Roman Law and Politics (1954), ch. ii. [p. 174]
18 ROMAN RELIGION. In general see W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (1911); id., The Roman Festivals (1908); H. J. Rose, Ancient Roman Religion (1949); R. M. Ogilvie, The Romans and their Gods (1969). H. H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (1981). The two standard works are G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer2 (1912) and K. Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte (1960). For Oriental cults see ch. XVI, n. 14 below. [p. 174]
CHAPTER XI
1 SOURCES FOR THE PRINCIPATE OF AUGUSTUS. The chief literary sources are the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (editions by J. Gagé3, 1977: P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore, 1967); Suetonius, Augustus (edited by M. Adams, 1939); Dio Cassius, lii–lvi; Velleius Paterculus, ii, 89–128; Tacitus, Ann. 1. 2–15. The fragments of Augustus’ own works are collected in H. Malcovati, Caesáris Augusti operum fragmenta (3rd ed. 1948). The most important documents are collected by V. Ehrenberg and A. H. M. Jones, Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (2nd ed. 1955). Contemporary poets and monuments are of the first importance. For the coinage see H. Mattingly, British Museum Catalogue of the Coins of The Roman Empire, vol. i, Augustus to Vitellius (1923); H. Mattingly and others, The Roman Imperial Coinage, i (1923); M. Grant, From Imperium to Auctoritas (1946); C. H. V. Sutherland, Coinage in Roman Imperial Policy (1951), chs. 2–4. K. Chrisholm and J. Ferguson, Rome. The Augustan Age (1981), a source book in translation.
Modern works include T. Rice Holmes, Architect Rom. Emp., II (1931); Augustus, Studi in occasione del bimillenario Augusteo (1938); R. Syme, Rom. Rev. (1939); J. Buchan, Augustus Caesar (1937); D. Earl, The Age of Augustus (1968); G. W. Bowersock, Augustus and the Greek World (1965); W. Schmitthenner (ed.), Augustus (1969), collected articles; A. H. M. Jones, Augustus (1970).
Tacitus. Since this great historian lived after the period covered by this volume and therefore his work is not described elsewhere, short reference may be made to him here at a point where his Annals begin to have relevance. Cornelius Tacitus was born c. A.D. 55, married in 77 the daughter of Agricola (later governor of Britain), lived through the oppressive tyranny of Domitian’s last years, held the consulship in 97 in the same year as the emperor Nerva, and was proconsul of Asia about 112. Of his writings we are concerned here only with the Annals, probably written in eighteen books and covering the years from A.D. 14 to 68; there survive books 1–4, a fragment of 5 and 6, about half of 11, all of 12–15 and a few chapters of 16. He claimed to write ‘since ira et studio’, and in the facts that he gives he is accurate, but he confines his attention to certain aspects (mainly court-life and senatorial and military affairs to the neglect of other aspects of the history of the Empire), and his interpretation of the facts is often open to question. He could not shake himself free from the experiences of his own life and outlook. He was not at heart reconciled to the Principate and he looked back to the ‘libertatem et consulatum’, the free institutions of the Republic which he saw through rose-coloured glasses. His portrait of Tiberius may be coloured by his own experiences under Domitian, but Tacitus is not guilty of deliberate falsification: he thought that Tiberius was like that. But despite any preconceptions and unconscious temperamental bias, Tacitus sought the truth and recorded it, as he saw it, in a work of sombre magnificence and brilliant style. The standard English edition of the Annals is by H. Furneaux, vol. i (books 1–6, 2nd ed., 1896), II (books 11–16, by Furneaux, Pelham, Fisher, 1907). Of modern works the following may be mentioned: G. Boissier, Tacitus (Engl. trans. 1906); M. L. W. Laistner, The Greater Roman Historians (1947), chs. vi–vii; B. Walker, The Annals of Tacitus, A study in the Writing of History (1952); R. Syme, Tacitus, 2 vols. (1958); C. W. Mendell, Tacitus, the Man and his Work (1958). For a sceptical view of Tacitus’ historical accuracy see G. Walser, Rom. das Reich und die fremden Völker in der Geschichtsschreibung der frühen Kaiserzeit (1951). See also T. A. Dorey (editor), Tacitus (1969), seven essays; F. R. D. Goody
ear, Tacitus (Greece and Rome, New Surveys of the Classics, no. 4, 1970) and The Annals of Tacitus, vols. i and ii (1972 and 1981). [p. 176]
2 CONSENSUS UNIVERSORUM. This phrase from Augustus’ Res Gestae, 34, is sometimes interpreted as having a semi-constitutional force: the coniuratio of 32 B.C. gave Octavian an imperium to fight the war and this was widened by later general expressions of support. For a convincing criticism of this and similar interpretations see G.E.F. Chilver, Historia, 1950, 412 ff. See also P. A. Brunt and M. Moore, Res Gestae (1967), 76, who also discuss (75 f.) Octavian’s constitutional position from 32 to Jan. 27 and consider what powers he may have surrendered in 28 as well as in 27 (as Dio Cassius, liii, 1–2): e.g. he allowed his colleague in the consulship, Agrippa, to hold the fasces alternately with himself; this implies that hitherto he had refused complete equality to his consular colleagues. On Octavian’s position in January 27 see W.K. Lacey, JRS, 1974, 176 ff. [p.176]
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