32 THE QUMRAN COMMUNITY AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS. Amid the immense modern literature on this subject, reference may be made to M. Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls (1956) and More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls (1958); T. H. Gaster, The Scriptures of the Dead Sea Sect (1957); J. Van der Ploeg, The Excavations at Qumran (1958); F. M. Cross, The Ancient Library at Qumran (1961); E. F. Sutcliffe, The Monks of Qumran (1960); R. de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1973). The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light (1962), which has been edited by Y. Yadin, throws light on military matters. Whether this sect were Essenes or not, is not yet established, but it was certainly not very dissimilar. The Kittim in the Scrolls are generally identified with the Romans. Their date is variously estimated, but is generally put before A.D. 70. One historical crux, the identification of the priestly enemy of the Teacher of Righteousness, has led to widely discrepant suggestions, e.g. Antiochus Epiphanes, Alexander Jannaeus, John Hyrcanus, or the Zealot Menahem (i.e. from c. 175 B.C. to A.D. 66). [p. 266]
33 TIBERIUS IULIUS ALEXANDER. On this man see E. G. Turner, JRS, 1954, 54 ff.; G. Chalon, L’édit de Tiberius Julius Alexander (1964). [p. 267]
34 THE JEWISH WAR. The main source is the works of Josephus, who took part: Bellum Iudaicum and his autobiography (Vita); the last book (xx) of his Antiquitates Iudaicae (from the Creation to a.d. 66) is also relevant here. See H. St. J. Thackeray, Josephus the Man and the Historian (1929). After the fall of Jerusalem some of the Sicarii managed to hold out in the fortress of Masada on the Dead Sea until they all perished in 73. For the Roman siege-works and camps here see A. Schulten, Masada (1933); excavation reports in Israel Explor. Journ., 1956–; I. A. Richmond, JRS, 1962, 142 ff.; Y. Yadin, Masada (1967). On the Sicarii see M. Hengel, Die Zeloten (1961); S. Applebaum, JRS, 1971, 155 ff. [p. 268]
35 VINDEX AND VERGINIUS. See M. Raoss, Epigrafica, 1958, 46–120; P. A. Brunt, Latomus, 1959, 531 ff.; G. Townend, ibid., 1961, 337 ff.; J. C. Hainsworth, Historia, 1962, 88 ff. On the development of events see now P. A. L. Greenhalgh, The Year of the Four Emperors (1975), and K. Wellesley, The Long Year, A.D. 69 (1975). On the chronology of Jan. to June, see D. F. A. Shotter, Historia, 1975, 59 ff., on the role of Verginius, L. J. Daly, Historia, 1975, 75 ff., and on the causes of the disorder of A.D. 68–69 see R. J. A. Talbert, Amer. J. Anc. Hist., 1977, 69 ff. [p. 269]
CHAPTER XV
1 THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE EARLY EMPIRE. No ancient writer dealt with this subject. The evidence therefore has to be gathered from sources such as the geographer Strabo, Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, the Periplus maris Erythraei (see n. 4 below), Petronius, and chance remarks in other writers, together with epigraphical, papyrological and archaeological material. Much of this has been brought together in Tenney Frank’s indispensable Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, of which vol. V (1940) deals with Rome and Italy of the Empire, and vols. II–IV with the provinces.
See also Tenney Frank, An Economic History of Rome (2nd ed. 1927); M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (2nd ed. 1957); F. M. Heichelheim, An Ancient Economic History, III (1970), ch. viii; M. P. Charlesworth, Trade Routes and Commerce of the Roman Empire (2nd ed. 1926); K. D. White, Roman Farming (1970). See also A. Burford, Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society (1972); M. I. Finley, The Ancient Economy (1973); R. Duncan-Jones The Economy of the Roman Empire (1974); L. Casson, Travel in the Ancient World (1974). [p. 272]
2 INDUSTRY AT POMPEII. See T. Frank, Econ. Hist., ch. xiv, Econ. Survey V, 252 ff. On life in Pompeii in general see R. C. Carrington, Pompeii (1936); H. H. Tanzer, The Common People of Pompeii (1939); M. Della Corte, Case ed abitanti a Pompeii (2nd ed. 1954). Pompeian families (especially of the governing class) are studied by P. Castren, Ordo Populusque Pompeianus: Polity and Society in Roman Pompeii (1975), and Pompeian commercial life by Andreau, Les affaires de Monsieur Jucundus (1974). For life at Ostia, see R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia2 (1973). [p. 273]
3 TRADE BEYOND THE EMPIRE. See Sir M. Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers (1954); O. Brogan, JRS, 1936, 195 ff. on trade with the free Germans; E. H. Warmington, The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (1928); J. I. Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC–A.D. 641 (1969). On Roma and India see W. Schmitthenner, JRS, 1979, 90 ff. [p. 277]
4 HIPPALUS. Our knowledge of Hippalus derives from The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Pliny, NH, vi, 26. The former is a sailor’s guide written in Greek by an Egyptian merchant and dealing with all the seas through which Oriental trade passed. It was written in the first century A.D., perhaps about 50. The date of Hippalus is uncertain and has been placed between 80 B.C. (W. W. Tarn) and A.D. 40 (Warmington). But an Augustan date is suggested both by the date of the pottery found at Pondicherry (the actual site is two miles south at Arikamedu near a village named Virampatnam) and by an inscription from the Eastern Desert of Egypt (see JRS, 1953, p. 38) which refers to a slave of P. Annius Plocamus in A.D. 6, while we know that a freedman of Plocamus farmed the Red Sea taxes; his adventures at sea suggest that he did not yet know the use of the monsoon. [p. 278]
5 THE SILK ROUTE AND TITIANUS. An expedition was sent along this route, presumably to expedite trade, led by a merchant named ‘Maes who was also called Titianus’ (Ptolemy, i, 11, 7); he probably was a Syrian and his party got as far as the Stone Tower in Chinese Turkestan. He is usually dated about A.D. 100–120, but his expedition may have been between 20 and 1 B.C. and fit in with the interest of Augustus in the East: see M. Cary, Cl. Qu., 1956, 130 ff. However, W. Schmitthenner, JRS, 1979, 105, thinks an Augustan date improbable. [p. 279]
6 PORTORIA. On the organization of these taxes see S. J. De Laet, Portorium (1949). [p. 280]
7 THE IMPORTANCE OF TRADE. For the view that this was less than is often assumed see A. H. M. Jones, Recueil de la Société Jean Bodin vii, 161 ff. For a wide survey of trade see K. Hopkins, ‘Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire, 200 B.C. to A.D. 400’, JRS, 1980, 101 ff. [p. 282]
8 THE DECLINE OF THE NOBILITY. See R. Syme, Rom. Rev., ch. xxxii, and Tacitus (1958), 585 ff. [p. 283]
9 SOCIAL LIFE IN THE EARLY PRINCIPATE. See T. G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul (1910); L. Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire (1908 ff.); J. Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (1941); C. G. Starr, Civilization and the Caesars (1954); J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome (1969), a valuable and entertaining survey. See also R. MacMullen, Roman Social Relations, 50 BC to A.D. 284 (1974), and Romans and Aliens (1979) by J. P. V. D. Balsdon who surveys the mutual regard of Romans and other people. [p. 285]
10 CORN DISTRIBUTIONS. See D. Van Berchem, Les Distributions de blé et d’argent à la plèbe romaine sous l’empire (1939). See also A. R. Hands, Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome (1968), 101 ff., a book which also deals with other forms of ‘relief’. See also H. Pavis d’Escurac, La Préfecture de l’annone: service administratif imperiale d’Auguste à Constantine (1976) and G. Rickman, The Corn Supply of Ancient Rome (1980). Cf. also ch. vii, n. 7 above. [p. 287]
10a CHARIOT-RACING. On this and sport in general see H. A. Harris, Sport in Greece and Rome (1972). [p. 289]
11 GLADIATORS. See ch. ix., n. 11 above and L. Robert, Gladiateurs dans l’Orient grec (1940). [p. 289]
CHAPTER XVI
1 DOMUS AUREA. See ch. XIV, n. 22. [p. 293]
2 ROMAN PAINTING. See A. Maiuri, Roman Painting (1953). [p. 294]
3 LE GRAND CAMÉE DE FRANCE. On the interpretation see J. P. V. D. Balsdon, JRS, 1936, 252; A. Piganiol, Histoire de Rome (1946), 263. [p. 294]
4 THE ARA PACIS. See J. M. C. Toynbee, ‘The Ara Pacis reconsidered’, Proc. Br. Acad., xxxix (1953), 67 ff. S. Weinstock (JRS, 1960, 44 ff.) has made a bold attempt to challenge the identification of the restored monument with the Ara Pacis. But see J. M. C. Toynbee, JRS, 1961, 153 ff. [p. 295]
5 POST-AUGUSTAN LITERATURE. H. E. Butler, Post-Augustan Poetry (1909); J. Wight Duff, A Literary History of Rome in the Silver Age (1927). On the literary chron
ology of the Neronian age see A. Momigliano (Cl. Qu., 1944, 96 ff. = Secondo Contributo, 454 ff.). [p. 295]
6 DECLAMATION. See S. F. Bonner, Roman Declamation in the late Republic and Early Empire (1949), an interesting book which emphasizes the acquaintance of many of the declaimers with Roman law. Cf. A.D. Leeman, Orationis Ratio (Amsterdam, 1963). On the suasoriae of the elder Seneca (see p. 298 above) cf. L. A. Sussman, The Elder Seneca (1978). J. Fairweather, Seneca the Elder (1981). [p. 296]
7 SENECA. For a consideration of some recent work on Seneca see A. Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines (1974), 606 ff.; for work on the Apocolocyntosis done 1922–58 see M. Coffey, Lustrum, 1961, 239 ff.; for work on Seneca’s prose works done 1940–57 see L. Motto, Cl. W., 1960. 13 ff., 37 ff., 111 ff. See also some observations by C. G. Starr, Civilization and the Caesars (1954), 222 ff. (where, however, the Octavia is attributed to Seneca). On Seneca and Christianity see A. Momigliano, Contributo alla storia degli studi classici (1955), 13 ff. See also M. T. Griffin, Seneca: a Philosopher in Politics (1976). [p. 299]
7a LUCAN. See A. M. Ahl, Lucan: an Introduction (1976). On Lucan and Nero see G. K. Gresseth, Cl. Ph., 1957, 24 ff. [p. 299]
7b CALPURNIUS SICULUS. Though widely assigned to Nero’s reign, Calpurnius’ lifetime has sometimes been set much later, e.g. recently in the early third century under Severus Alexander by E. Champlin, JRS, 1978, 95 ff., but for the Neronian date see G. B. Townend, JRS, 1980, 166 ff. and R. Mayer, id., 175 ff. [p. 300]
8 AUFIDIUS BASSUS. See R. Syme, Tacitus (1958), 697 ff. [p. 300]
9 MEDICINE. See in general J. Scarborough, Roman Medicine (1969). [p. 301]
10 PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION. In a wide-ranging survey entitled Enemies of the Roman Order (1967) R. MacMullen examines elements in Roman society, including many philosophers, who opposed the regime. Here chs. I and II are particularly relevant. On Musonius see M. P. Charlesworth’s interesting essay in Five Men (1936), 33 ff.; C. F. Lutz, Yale Class. Stud., 1947, 3 ff. On the influence of Stoicism on the Principate in general see P. A. Brunt, Papers Brit. Sch. Rome, 1975, 7 ff. [p. 303]
11 ASTROLOGY. See F. H. Cramer, Astrology in Roman Law and Politics (1954), 92–131 for Thrasyllus and Balbillus. See also MacMullen, op. cit., above, chs. III and IV. [p. 305]
12 THE PORTA MAGGIORE BASILICA. See J. Carcopino, La Basilique pythagoricienne de la Porte Majeure (1927); his belief in its connexion with Neopythagoreanism is probable, but has not been proved. [p. 305]
13 VILLA OF THE MYSTERIES. See J. Toynbee, JRS, 1929, 67 ff.; K. Lehmann, JRS, 1962, 62 ff. [p. 305]
14 ORIENTAL CULTS. See F. Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain (4th ed., 1929, Eng. trans. of 2nd ed. (1909), published in 1911 and reprinted 1956: Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism); J. Toutain, Les cultes païens dans l’empire romain (1907); W. R. Halliday, The Pagan Background of Early Christianity (1925); M. Rostovtzeff, Mystic Italy (1927); A. D. Nock, Conversion (1933); A. J. Festugière-Fabre, Le monde greco-romain au temps de Notre Seigneur, 2 vols. (1944 f.); J. Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire (1970): R. E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman World (1971). On Cybele, M.J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis (1977). [p. 305]
15 JEWS AND JUDAISM. See W. O. E. Oesterly, A History of Israel, II (1932), G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, 2 vols. (1927), F. J. Foakes Jackson and Kirsopp Lake, The Beginnings of Christianity, I (1920), 1–168, E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–A.D. 135), revised by G. Vermes and F. Millar, I (1973), ii (1979). [p. 306]
16 DEAD SEA SCROLLS AND CHRISTIANITY. On the lack of direct connexion see the brief but authoritative statement by H.H. Rowley, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (1957); The Teacher of Righteousness (1957); also The Scrolls and the New Testament, edited by K. Stendahl (1958). M. Black, The Scrolls and Christian Origins (1961). On the scrolls, see further ch. XIV, n. 32. See now G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English (1962). [p. 307]
17 JESUS OF NAZARETH. In view of the immensity of the literature only a few books can be mentioned: A. Schweitzer, Quest of the Historical Jesus (1911); V. Taylor, The Formation of the Gospel Tradition (1933), The Life and Ministry of Jesus (1954); C. H. Dodd, The Founder of Christianity (1971); F. C. Burkitt, Jesus Christ (1932); T. W. Manson, Jesus the Messiah (1943); G. D. Kilpatrick, The Trial of Jesus (1953). See also ‘The Present Position in the Controversy concerning the Problem of the Historical Jesus’, by J. Jeremias, The Expository Times, 1958, 333 ff. For the general background see F. F. Bruce, New Testament History (1969). Cf. also M. Grant, Jesus (1977), and Jesus and the Politics of his Day edited by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (forthcoming). On the authenticity and importance of the references to Jesus in Josephus see P. Winter in E. Schürer, History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, edited by G. Vermes and F. Millar (1973), 428 ff. [p. 307]
18 CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF JESUS. The sixth-century Christian monk, Dionysius Exiguus, who established the Christian era by equating the Roman year 753 A.U.C. with 1 B.C. and 754 A.U.C. with A.D. 1, thereby placed the birth of Jesus too late, since he was certainly born during the reign of Herod the Great who died in 4 B.C.; the date of the nativity may be as early as 7 B.C. (see above ch. xii, n. 10). The length of the Ministry of Jesus was often believed in the second and third centuries to have lasted only one year, but the tradition of the three Synoptic Gospels (more probably) suggests two years, while the Gospel according to St. John has (wrongly?) been thought to imply three years. The critical date of the Crucifixion is uncertain: it was during the procuratorship of Pilate (A.D. 26–36) and the High-priesthood of Caiaphas (18–36), probably on a Friday and on the 14th day of the Jewish lunar month Nisan. Astronomical calculations as to when 14th Nisan fell on a Friday have resulted in little firm agreement, but the years A.D. 29, 30 or 33 are the most probable. For a discussion of the evidence for the chronology of the life of Jesus (and of the New Testament) see G. Ogg, Peake’s Commentary on the Bible, edited by M. Black and H. H. Rowley (1962), 728 ff. [p. 307]
19 TIBERIUS AND THE CRUCIFIXION. The story that Pilate reported the death of Jesus to Tiberius, which is recorded by Tertullian (Apolog. 21, 24), and that Tiberius reported to the Senate ‘veritatem ipsius divinitatis’ (ibid. 5, 2), is generally rejected as deriving from the apocryphal Acta Pilati or other such works. Recent attempts to establish its truth have not been very happy: see S. Mazzarino, Trattato di storia Romana, II (1956), 165 f., who attributes its creation to the time of Domitian rather than to the second century A.D. For further literature and complete rejection of the story see T. D. Barnes, JRS, 1968, 32–3. A. Frova (Rendiconti dell’ Ist. Lombardo (vol.) 95, 1961, 419 ff.) has published the new inscription of Pontius Pilate from Caesarea: ‘…]s Tiberievm [Pon]tivs Pilatvs [Praef]ectvs Ivdaeae.’ This stone must come from a building in honour of Tiberius (a Tiberieum) dedicated by Pilate. It is noteworthy both as an epigraphic record of Pilate and also as apparently naming him praefectus, not procurator. See ch. XI, n. 27 above. [p. 308]
20 THE EARLY CHURCH. On the early Church see H. Lietzman, History of the Early Church (Engl. trans. 1937); J. Lebreton and J. Zeiller, The History of the Primitive Church, I (Engl. trans. 1942); Foakes Jackson and K. Lake, op. cit., n. 15; P. Carrington, The Early Christian Church, I (1957), and interesting book but not adequately documented; H. Chadwick, The Early Church (1967), ch. 1; D. R. Griffiths, The New Testament and the Roman State (1970), an introductory sketch. [p. 308]
21 CHRISTIANI. On the name see H.B. Mattingly (Journ. Theol. Studies, 1958, 26 ff.), who compares it with ‘Augustiani’. [p. 309]
22 ST. PAUL. See W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen (1897); A. Deissmann, St. Paul (1912). For a brief commentary on Acts see A. W. F. Blunt, volume in The Clarendon Bible (1923); also H. J. Cadbury, The Book of Acts in History (1955); in general, Peake’s Commentary on the Bible, edited by M. Black and H. H. Rowley (1962). The chronology of Paul’s life contains difficulties. His conversion to C
hristianity may have been five to ten years after the Crucifixion; his first missionary journey was made c. 57, he arrived in Rome c. 59–62, and his death occurred possibly in 64. His Epistles and the account of his exciting life recorded in the Acts throw much light on the Roman world, and on the whole the Roman authorities are seen in a favourable light, at any rate in their dealings with one who could claim civis Romanus sum. See also A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (1963) and M. Grant, St. Paul (1976). [p. 309]
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following is a selection of a few books (in English) which cover all or considerable parts of the political history of Rome from the Gracchi to Nero. Others, both detailed studies and works dealing more precisely with social, economic and cultural aspects, are mentioned in the Notes.
The Cambridge Ancient History, ed. S. A. Cook, F. E. Adcock and M. P. Charlesworth: ix, The Roman Republic, 133–44 B.C. (1932); x, The Augustan Empire 44 B.C.–A.D. 70 (1934)
Methuen’s History of the Greek and Roman World: F. B. Marsh, History of the Roman World, 146–30 B.C. (3rd ed. rev. by H. H. Scullard 1963) and E. T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, 30 B.C.–A.D. 138 (5th. ed. 1966)
From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 Page 66