19.2.3 Ablative of Degree/Measure of Difference
19.2.4 Partitive Genitive
19.3 VERBS OF FEARING
Translation from Latin
Translation into Latin
Extra Passage
Vocabulary Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs; Conjunctions
FIGURE 19.1 Gold aureus, ad 125–8. Wolf and twins (Romulus and Remus). Minted during the reign of the emperor Hadrian (ad 117–38). The motif/myth of the wolf and twins continued to be a powerful image for the Romans. © Leeds Museums and Galleries (Discovery Centre)
19.1 Degrees of Comparison: Comparative and Superlative
Latin adjectives and adverbs, like their English counterparts, exist in three degrees of comparison: positive (adjective: brave; adverb: bravely); comparative (adjective: braver, more brave, quite brave; adverb: more bravely); superlative (adjective: bravest, most brave, very brave; adverb: most bravely, very bravely).
19.1.1 Comparative Adjectives
The positive degree is the form we have already met: dignus, felix, etc. To form the masculine and feminine comparative, add -ior to the stem and to form the neuter add -ius: dignior, dignius – more worthy. Even if the positive degree belongs to the first/second declension, the comparative declines in the same way as third declension non-i-stem nouns:
Notice that the stem (from the genitive singular) is digniōr-.
The comparative of third declension adjectives declines in exactly the same way:
19.1.2 Superlative Adjectives
To form the superlative find the stem of the positive degree in the normal way and add -issimus, -issima, -issimum for the nominative singular; the remaining forms have the same case endings as regular first/second declension adjectives:
dignus, -a, -um
The superlative of third declension adjectives declines in exactly the same way as that of first/second declension adjectives (i.e., belongs to the second declension):
fēlīx, fēlīcis
19.1.3 Adjectives in -er
Adjectives in -er form their comparatives in the regular way: stem + -ior (neuter -ius):
tener, -era, -erum
ācer, -cris, -cre
Notice that if the stem contains an “e,” it remains throughout; however, if the “e” is dropped from the stem, it is dropped throughout.
The superlative of -er adjectives is formed in a slightly different way: double the “r” at the end of the masculine singular and add -imus:
Try This
Identify the verbs in the following passage (including participles, infinitives, gerunds, and gerundives) and parse them (you will need to use a dictionary to complete this exercise):
e.g., cano 1st person singular, present indicative active of cano, canere “to sing”
ita velut defuncti regis imperio in proxima alluvie
ubi nunc ficus Ruminalis est – Romularem vocatam ferunt –
pueros exponunt. vastae tum in his locis solitudines erant.
tenet fama cum fluitantem alveum, quo expositi erant pueri,
tenuis in sicco aqua destituisset, lupam sitientem ex montibus
qui circa sunt ad puerilem vagitum cursum flexisse; eam
submissas infantibus adeo mitem praebuisse mammas ut
lingua lambentem pueros magister regii pecoris invenerit –
Faustulo fuisse nomen ferunt – ab eo ad stabula Larentiae
uxori educandos datos.
(Livy 1.4.7)
19.1.4 Adjectives in -ilis
There are six fairly common adjectives of this type: facilis, -e – easy; difficilis, -e – difficult; similis, -e – like, similar; dissimilis, -e – unlike, dissimilar; gracilis, -e – slender; humilis, -e – humble, lowly. These adjectives form their comparatives in the regular way; however, to form their superlative double the “l” of the stem, then add -imus:
Comparative
Superlative
19.1.5 Adverbs
We have already met a number of adverbs that are not based upon adjectives (e.g., tam, ita, etc.); however, Latin, like English, forms a number of adverbs on the adjective stem.
The commonest form of the positive degree of adverbs based upon adjectives of the first/second declension is made up of the stem + -e: dignē – worthily (remember that adverbs do not decline); the comparative is the same in form as the neuter nominative singular of the comparative adjective: dignius – more worthily; for all superlatives, take the stem of the superlative adjective and add -e: dignissimē – most worthily; (fēlīcissimē, ācerrimē, facillimē, etc.). Adverbs based upon third declension adjectives are regularly formed by adding -iter to the stem; fortiter – bravely; the comparative is formed regularly: fortius – more bravely; the superlative is formed in the same way as for the first/second declension: fortissimē – most bravely.
19.1.6 Irregular Comparison
As in English (good, better, best) so in Latin some adjectives have irregular forms of the comparative and superlative. And as in English, these are often fairly common adjectives:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bonus melior, melius optimus, -a, -um
magnus maior, maius maximus, -a, -um
malus peior, peius pessimus, -a, -um
multus plūs plūrimus, -a, -um
All of these comparatives decline in the same way as dignior except plūs – more, which is used as a neuter noun only in the singular and is regularly followed by the genitive case (partitive genitive):
atque ego hoc plūs oneris habeō (Cicero In Verrem 2.3.4): and I consider this more of a burden.
In the plural plūrēs, plūra is a regular third declension adjective:
plūrēs cīvitātēs (Caesar De Bello Gallico 3.10.3): more states.
19.2 Constructions with the Comparative and Superlative
19.2.1 Comparative in a Purpose Clause
If a purpose clause contains a comparative adjective or adverb, the clause is introduced by quō (the verb is still in the subjunctive):
id quō facilius facere possitis, dabō operam (Cicero Pro Quinctio 11): I shall make an effort in order that you may be able to do this more easily.
19.2.2 Ablative of Comparison/Quam
The ablative case is used with comparative adjectives and adverbs, generally only when the first noun/pronoun is in the nominative or accusative case; quam – than may be used at any time. If the first item in the comparison is in any case other than nominative or accusative, then quam must be used:
nec enim melior vir fuit Africānō quisquam nec clārior (Cicero De Amicitia 6): for there was no man better than Africanus nor more illustrious.
certē igitur ignorātiō futūrōrum malōrum ūtilior est quam scientia (Cicero De Divinatione 2.24): certainly, therefore, ignorance of future misfortunes is more profitable than knowledge (of them).
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The Bigger Picture
De Divinatione (On Divination), a philosophical dialogue between Cicero and his brother Quintus in two books completed in 44 bc to serve as a supplement to his work De Natura Deorum. In the first book, influenced by Greek Stoic ideas, Quintus defends divination, while in the second Cicero, basing his arguments on those of the Greek founder of the New Academy, Carneades, rejects it as laughable.
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When used with the superlative quam means as … as possible:
petō ā tē ut quam celerrimē mihi librārius mittātur (Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 16.21.8): I beg of you that my secretary be sent to me as quickly as possible.
19.2.3 Ablative of Degree/Measure of Difference
The ablative can accompany a comparative to express the measure of difference (e.g., by how much something is larger or smaller):
multō maior alacritās studiumque pugnandī maius exercituī iniectum est (Caesar De Bello Gallico 1.46.4): far greater eagerness and greater enthusiasm for fighting was inspired in the army.
19.2.4 Partitive Genitive
A partitive genitive is often found with the superlative:
hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae (Caesar De Bello Gallico 1.1.3): of all these the bravest are the Belgae.
19.3 Verbs of Fearing
There are three main constructions with verbs of fearing: timeō, metuō, vereor. These verbs may be followed by a direct object in the accusative case:
Caesar … eius reī moram temporisque longinquitātem timēbat (Caesar Bellum Civile 1.29.1): Caesar … feared the delay involved in this matter and the length of time.
Or they may be followed by a complementary infinitive:
Caesar … timēbat tantae magnitūdinī flūminis exercitum obicere (Caesar Bellum Civile 1.64.3): Caesar … was afraid to expose his army to such a great size of current.
Or they may be followed by a subordinate clause whose verb is in the subjunctive. The tense of the subjunctive is determined by the rules of sequence. The only difficulty occurs with the introductory conjunction: a clause expressing the fear that something will happen is introduced by ne; a clause expressing a fear that something will not happen is introduced by ut (occasionally by nē … nōn):
Indūtiomārus veritus nē ab omnibus dēsererētur, legātōs ad Caesarem mittit (Caesar De Bello Gallico 5.3.6): Indutiomarus because he feared that he was being deserted by all, sends envoys to Caesar.
vereor ut Dolabella ipse satis nōbīs prodesse possit (Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 14.14.1): I am afraid that Dolabella himself may not be able to help us enough.
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SOUND BITE
Seneca on goodness – again (Seneca Epistolae Morales 79.11)
nec enim bonitas est pessimis esse meliorem.
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Translation from Latin
HINT!
When translating, keep in mind the context. Is Cicero defending or prosecuting? Is he writing a letter to one of his friends or is it a more “philosophical” work?
1. non modo nihil timere sed maiora et meliora exspectare debetis. (Cicero Philippicae 5.51)
2. deinde sententiam meam tu facillime perspicere potuisti iam ab illo tempore cum in Cumanum mihi obviam venisti. non enim te celavi sermonem T. Ampi. vidisti quam abhorrerem ab urbe relinquenda, cum audissem. (Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 2.16.3)
3. atque ego hoc plus oneris habeo quam qui ceteros accusarunt, si onus est id appellandum quod cum laetitia feras ac voluptate. (Cicero In Verrem 2.3.4)
4. quanto erat in dies gravior atque asperior oppugnatio et maxime, quod magna parte militum confecta vulneribus res ad paucitatem defensorum pervenerat, tanto crebriores litterae nuntiique ad Caesarem mittebantur. (Caesar De Bello Gallico 5.45.1)
5. in occupandis praesidiis magna vi uterque nitebatur: Caesar, ut quam angustissime Pompeium contineret, Pompeius, ut quam plurimos colles quam maximo circuitu occuparet; crebraque ob eam causam proelia fiebant. (Caesar Bellum Civile 3.45.1)
6. tum Scaevola comiter, ut solebat, “cetera” inquit “adsentior Crasso, ne aut de C. Laeli soceri mei aut de huius generi aut arte aut gloria detraham; sed illa duo, Crasse, vereor ut tibi possim concedere.” (Cicero De Oratore 1.35)
7. venit enim mihi in mentem in iudicio M’. Aquili quantum auctoritatis, quantum momenti oratio M. Antoni habuisse existimata sit. (Cicero In Verrem 2.5.3)
8. in primam aciem processit centurionibusque nominatim appellatis reliquos cohortatus milites signa inferre et manipulos laxare iussit, quo facilius gladiis uti possent. (Caesar De Bello Gallico 2.25.3)
9. haec est enim, ut scis, vetus et Socratica ratio contra alterius opinionem disserendi. nam ita facillime, quid veri simillimum esset, inveniri posse Socrates arbitrabatur. sed quo commodius disputationes nostrae explicentur, sic eas exponam, quasi agatur res, non quasi narretur. (Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 1.8)
FIGURE 19.2 Roman bronze lamp, 1st century ad. © Leeds Museums and Galleries (Discovery Centre)
Translation into Latin
1. It is more difficult to find the end of this speech than its beginning. (Cicero Pro Lege Manilia 3)
2. Listen to the evidence in order that you may more easily be able to form a judgment about his singular shamelessness. (Cicero In Verrem 2.2.18)
3. I cannot pretend, judges. I fear that on account of this outstanding courage in military matters Gaius Verres has done everything that he has done with impunity. (Cicero In Verrem 2.5.3)
4. On the preceding days Caesar, fearing that our men might be surrounded by the fleet, had made a double rampart in this place. (Caesar Bellum Civile 3.63.2)
5. They send envoys to ask for assistance so that they may more easily withstand the forces of the enemy. (Caesar De Bello Gallico 7.5.2)
6. We ask of you, Marcus Fannius, and of you, judges, that you punish wicked deeds as severely as possible and that you resist the most reckless men as boldly as possible. (Cicero Pro S. Roscio Amerino 12)
7. I was afraid that my sudden arrival among my friends might arouse some degree of suspicion. [use aliquid + gen.] (Cicero Philippicae 1.7)
8. Since one was bringing aid to another and since they were not afraid that they would be surrounded by the enemy from behind, they began to resist more boldly and to fight more bravely. (Caesar De Bello Gallico 2.26.2)
9. Next day at dawn he broke camp and, having advanced about four miles, he caught sight of a great number of the enemy across a valley and a stream. (Caesar De Bello Gallico 5.49.6)
Extra Passage
The relationship with Lesbia is now over.
Miser Catulle, desinas1 ineptire,
et quod vides perisse perditum ducas.
fulsere quondam candidi tibi soles,
cum ventitabas quo puella ducebat,
amata nobis quantum amabitur nulla.
ibi illa multa tum iocosa fiebant,
quae tu volebas nec puella nolebat.
fulsere vere candidi tibi soles.
nunc iam illa non vult: tu quoque, impotens, noli,
nec quae fugit sectare, nec miser vive,
sed obstinata mente perfer, obdura.
vale, puella, iam Catullus obdurat,
nec te requiret nec rogabit invitam.
at tu dolebis, cum rogaberis nulla.
scelesta, vae te! quae tibi manet vita?
quis nunc te adibit? cui videberis bella?
quem nunc amabis? cuius esse diceris?
quem basiabis? cui labella mordebis?
at tu, Catulle, destinatus obdura!
(Catullus 8)
1 Present subjunctive used here in place of 2nd person imperative; translate “you should cease.”
Vocabulary
Nouns
adventus, -ūs (m.) – arrival
alacritās, -ātis (f.) – eagerness
argūmentum, -ī (n.) – argument; evidence
C. Laelius, -iī (m.) – father-in-law of Q. Mucius Scaevola (see below)
circuitus, -ūs (m.) – circuit; circle
classis, -is (f.) – fleet
collis, -is (m.) – hill
Crassus, -ī (m.) – Lucius Licinius Crassus the most famous orator before Cicero and Cicero's tutor
Cūmānum, -ī (n.) – an estate belonging to Cicero near Cumae
disputātiō, -ōnis (f.) – argument; reasoning
laetitia, -ae (f.) – joy
M’. Aquilius, -iī (m.) – Manius Aquilius, defended by Marc Antony
maleficium, -iī (n.) – crime; wicked deed
manipulus, -ī (m.) – an infantry unit; a company
mōmentum, -ī (n.) – weight; importance
multitūdō, -inis (f.) – large number
necessārius, necessāriī (m.) – relative; friend
onus, -eris (n.) – burden; trouble
ratiō, -ōnis (f.) – method
rīvus, -ī (m.) – stream
Scaevola, -ae (m.) – Quintus Mucius Scaevola, a renowned lawyer (during Cicero's lifetime)
socer, -erī (m.) – father-in-law
Sōcratēs, -is (
m.) – Socrates (Greek philosopher, 5th century bc)
subsidium, subsidiī (n.) – assistance
T. Ampius, -iī (m.) – Titus Ampius, a Roman politician
tectum, -ī (n.) – roof; house
vallēs, -is (f.) – valley
vallum, -ī (n.) – rampart
vastitās, -ātis (f.) – waste; desert
voluptās, -ātis (f.) – pleasure
Verbs
abhorreō, -ēre, -uī – abhor; hate; not to wish
accipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptum – receive; hear; listen to
adsentior, adsentī, adsensus sum (+ dat.) – agree with
celō, -āre – hide
circumveniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventum – surround
concēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessum – concede
conspicor, -ārī, conspicātus sum – catch sight of
dētrahō, -ere, -traxī, -tractum – take away from
disserō, -ere, -seruī, -sertum – discuss; argue
dissimulō, -āre – pretend
existimō, -āre – judge
explicō, -āre – unfold; set forth
iniciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectum (+ dat.) – bring into; instill
laxō, -āre – spread out
narrō, -āre – tell; relate; report
nītor, nītī, nīsus (nixus) sum – strive
petō, -ere, petīvī, petītum – seek; (+ ab + abl.) ask of
sustineō, -ēre, -tinuī, -tentum – withstand
vindicō, -āre – punish
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