by Neal Bascomb
From messages received: Letter from Hole to Tronstad, December 16, 1943, LTP.
“filled with explosive”: November 5, 1943, LTD.
“decided to abandon”: Cable from S. D. Felkin, December 22, 1943, TNA: HS 2/187.
This unconfirmed intelligence: Notat vedrörende angrenpene på Rjukan og Vemork, November 16, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
“It was a”: Njølstad, 270–71.
“It is my”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 23, 1943, LTP.
“We get nothing”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, December 8, 1943, LTP.
“It is hard”: April 30, 1943, LTD. This reflection matches perfectly the one expressed by Malcolm Munthe, his British colleague, who on May 3, 1943, sent Tronstad a letter that stated, “As you perhaps have known—I have for some time past felt—very keenly, when sending out into the field some of my Norwegian friends—the need to once again try to do my bit in the active side of the war myself.” Letter from Munthe to Tronstad, May 3, 1943, DORA: Correspondence 1937–45.
Throughout November: Walker, German National Socialism, 100–102.
For their G-III: Bericht über die Neutronenvermehrung einer Anordnung von Uranwürfeln und Schwerem Wasser (GIII), Deutsches Museum Archiv; Nagel, 90–92; Irving, 190–92.
“Given the relatively”: Bericht über die Neutronenvermehrung einer Anordnung von Uranwürfeln und Schwerem Wasser (GIII), Deutsches Museum Archiv.
Straightaway his team: Bagge and Diebner, 35.
His success came: Letter from Göring to Esau, December 2, 1943, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III/B27/F30; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 219.
Tall, with a: Irving, 200; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 220–21.
“the emperor of”: Karlsch, 104–5.
“In my opinion”: Nagel, 94.
Prior to his: Karlsch, 106; Walker, German National Socialism, 130–31.
On December 11: Protokoll über die in Norsk Hydro Buro, Oslo, December 11, 1943, NB: G-341.
“expose the company’s”: Protokoll über die in Norsk Hydro Buro, Oslo, December 11, 1943, NB: G-341.
At the same: Mark Walker and Rainer Karlsch, “New Light on Hitler’s Bomb” (Physics World, June 1, 2005); Nagel, 92–93; Irving, 213–17. There is little doubt Diebner was working on this effort. The bigger controversy revolves around its success or failure. Irving skirts away from the answer, but Karlsch argues in his book that Diebner and crew successfully tested such weapons. Whether they did—or did not—the author agrees with the Karlsch/Walker article that says: “What is important is the revelation that a small group of scientists working in the last desperate months of the war were trying to do this.”
“We are sending”: Messages from/to Swallow, December 19, 1943–January 1, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
Bunkered down: Haukelid, 171–72; December 25, 1943–January 1, 1944, ESD.
Haukelid was somber: Ording, 255; Haukelid, 159.
The two men: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“I don’t understand”: Haukelid, 166–67.
Despite these squabbles: Ibid.; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“It is reported”: Njølstad, 288–89; Message from London, January 29, 1943, TNA: HS 2/188.
Although the American: Report on Rjukan, January 1, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“secret weapon forge”: Translation of Extract from Swedish Newspaper, “Brilliant Coup Against Hitler’s Secret Weapon,” November 23, 1943, TNA: HS 2/188.
Like Sørlie, most: Sørlie Memoir.
Viten told: Ibid.; January 30, 1943, ESD.
The wind blew: Sørlie Memoir.
26. FIVE KILOS OF FISH
On February 1: Rolf Sørlie, Report on Milorg at Rjukan, May 12, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir; Løken, 102; Drummond, 152; Report by Sheriff Foss, January 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Some workmen had: Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
The next day: Sørlie Memoir.
Sørlie delivered his: Message from Swallow, February 2, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
“Do you always”: Sørlie Memoir.
At last, an: Message from Swallow, February 3, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174.
“Did you meet”: Haukelid, 178.
Sørlie reported: Rolf Sørlie, Report on Milorg at Rjukan, May 12, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Message from Swallow, February 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/174.
“We will probably”: Message from Swallow, February 6, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Sørlie returned: Haukelid, 181.
After a week: February 6, 1944, LTD.
Over the past: Njølstad, 298–99; Messages to/from Swallow, February 1–7, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
In the end: Letter from Tronstad to Wilson, February 7, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; February 7, 1942, LTD; Letter from Welsh to Tronstad, February 8, 1944, LTP.
“We are interested”: Message to Swallow, February 8, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“We will do”: February 7, 1943, LTD.
“Einar, you awake?”: Drummond, 156.
Sørlie arrived at: Haukelid, 182–83; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
First they: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23. These two accounts are the best distillation of the thinking behind the various options. The same breakdown can be found in a number of other sources, including Haukelid’s memoir as well.
Back at Nilsbu: Message from Swallow, February 9, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; Skinnarland Notes, ESP.
“Agree to sinking”: Message to Swallow, February 10, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“You have to”: Sørlie Memoir.
The letter was a blow: Haukelid Family, Author Interview; Haukelid, 182; Sørlie Memoir; Message from Swallow, February 12, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Letter to SNA, February 17, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23B.
On February 13: February 13, 1944, ESD; Sørlie Memoir.
Olav Skindalen met: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
The next day: Kjell Nielsen, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“effect of the”: Message from Swallow, February 16, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
They returned to: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
After dinner that: Sørlie Memoir.
A heavy snow: February 16, 1943, ESD.
“The matter has”: Message to Swallow, February 16, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Skinnarland did not: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Haukelid, 185–86.
27. THE MAN WITH THE VIOLIN
The following day: Interview with Alf Larsen, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Knut Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
“I know it’s”: Drummond, 160.
It was one: Haukelid, 187.
Haukelid continued: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“place a time”: Ibid.
Next they needed: Kjell Nielsen, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
The pensioner had: Diseth, Friends Report, NHM: SOE, Box 23B; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Gallagher, 175–76.
The next day: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
The ferry: Payton and Lepperød; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, Apr
il 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Irving, 203.
When Haukelid boarded: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, Feb-ruary 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Haukelid, 187–88; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Haukelid, IWM: Oral History.
It turned out: Interview with Knut Lier-Hansen, KA; Report by Gunlsik Skogen, December 1, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174; Knut Lier-Hansen, Friends Report, NHM: SOE, Box 23B.
Haukelid liked Lier-Hansen: Haukelid, 189. There is some murkiness in regard to when Lier-Hansen joined the team. In his own interview, Lier-Hansen puts himself fairly center stage as early as February 10, but this runs against most other accounts, which do not have him coming aboard until the final days (and relate the worry of still being a man down). Sørlie and Haukelid both recount this version. Given the assembly of evidence, February 18 looks to be the most likely scenario. Haukelid states explicitly they met this day in his after-action report and Lier-Hansen is not mentioned in any of the meetings that Larsen, Syverstad, or Nielsen participated in prior to that date.
“smashing”: Larsen, 1242–49.
“Anything that can”: Ibid., 1249–50.
Fehlis had sent: Irving, 205–6.
On February 18: February 18, 1944, LTD.
According to a: Letter to Michael Perrin, February 15, 1944, TNA: HS 8/955/DISR.
When Einar Skinnarland: February 10, 1944, LTD.
Brun pleaded: Brun, 85–86.
Wilson sent: John Wilson, “On Resistance in Norway,” NHM: Box 50A; Interview with Michael Perrin, DIA: DJ 31.
After his hike: February 18, 1944, LTD.
Two pops ripped: Haukelid, 188.
“At least they”: Drummond, 162.
The explosive time: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Gallagher, 176; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
Over in Vemork: Letter to Welsh, March 20, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“unnamed destination”: Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
28. A 10:45 Alarm
Shortly before midnight: Haukelid, 191; Message from Swallow, March 30, 1944, NHM: Box 10.
The two saboteurs: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Larsen, DIA: DJ 31.
“You dumb brute”: Drummond, 165.
“I’m sorry”: Kurzman, 224.
They had already: Gallagher, 179.
The lone car moved: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Knut Lier-Hansen, KA; Haukelid, 191–93; Drummond, 167–70; Gallagher, 179–82; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir. Other than specifically noted quotes, the narrative of the placing of the explosives aboard the Hydro is drawn from these sources collectively.
“Is that you, Knut”: Gallagher, 181; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sikkerhetspoliti Rapport av John Berg, February 21, 1944, NHM: Box 10B.
“I’ll be back”: Drummond, 171.
On Sunday morning: Vedr. D/F Hydro forlis February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Irving, 209.
In his childhood: Lillian Gabrielson, Author Interview.
“That’s the chief”: Haukelid, 195.
Up on the: Interview with Lier-Hansen, KA.
Captain Erling: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Gallagher, 184.
Just before 10:45: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Aftenposten, February 23, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Fritt Folk, February 23, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Rjukan Dagblad, February 22, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Interview with Eva Gulbrandsen, KA; Omkomne D/F Hydro, February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13.
“Steer toward land”: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13.
“A bomb”: Interview with Eva Gulbrandsen, KA.
“I can’t help”: Ibid.
Of the fifty-three: Haukelid, 197; Omkomne D/F Hydro, February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13. The exact numbers on the ferry that day are somewhat obscured by the fact that the ticket clerk—and his records—were lost in the sinking. The final accounting comes from an intelligence report found by Knut Haukelid after the war in the records of the military governor of Norway.
Rolf Sørlie spent: Sørlie Memoir.
At the Hamarens’: February 21, 1944, ESD.
As soon as: Message from Swallow, February 22, 1944, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
“If you disappear”: Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, March 25, 1944, NHM: Box 10.
When the Gestapo: Sikkerhetspoliti Rapport av John Berg, February 21, 1944, NHM: Box 10B; Gudbrandsen, Rapport til Lederen av Statspolitiet, February 23, 1944, NHM: Box 10B.
Knut Haukelid was: Haukelid, 195–202; Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
On February 26: February 26–March 7, 1944, LTD.
As for Vemork: April 13, 1944, LTD.
29. VICTORY
By the end: Irving, 217–19.
“precarious position”: Bericht uber die Arbeiten auf Kernphysikalischen Gebiet, NB: Goudsmit, IV/B25/F13.
“Very soon I shall”: Karlsch, 166–67.
In July, a bomb: May 12, 1944, LTD.
In August, Colonel: Irving, 246–47, 258–60; Alsos Mission Report, DIA: DJ 31.
“Germany had no”: Goudsmit, 71
They crisscrossed: Interview with Georg Hartwig, NB: Oral History; Nagel, 129–30; Cassidy, 496.
On June 15, 1944: June 10, 1944, LTD.
Since the Allied: Njølstad, 331–35.
“first class in all”: Finishing Report, STS 17, DORA: Correspondence 1937–45.
Jens-Anton Poulsson: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171.
“the major industrial objectives”: Appendix A, Sunshine Action Plans, NHM: Box 10C.
On August 27, Tronstad: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 27, 1944, LTP.
“Please take care”: Speech by Gerd Hurum Truls, October 10, 1987, LTP.
“long exile”: August 27, 1944, LTD.
When the other: Njølstad, 358.
Over the next: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171.
On the night of: Skinnarland Report on the Deaths of Major Tronstad and Sergeant Syverstad, March 16, 1945, TNA: HS 2/171; Njølstad, 410–24.
The order to: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171; Herrington, 283–85; Military Homefront Survey, December 1, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 4.
That night, at: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 291–93.
Heinrich Fehlis: Klykken, Frits, “Saken Fehlis,” Porsgunn Folkebibliotek.
A month after: Colonel Wilson, Diary of a Scandinavian Tour, TNA: HS 9/1605/3.
“Many times it may”: Chicago Tribune, June 8, 1945.
On Midsummer’s Eve, June 23: Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP; Freds Og Midtsommerskal, June 23, 1945, ESP.
A week after: Colonel Wilson, Diary of a Scandinavian Tour, TNA: HS 9/1605/3.
By early August: Njølstad, 426–29.
“Dearest Bassa . . . I have”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 27, 1944, LTP.
In Farm Hall, a quiet: Powers, 434–35; Bagge and Diebner, 51–55.
“shattered”: Frank, 70.
“Here is the news”: Bernstein and Cassidy, Appendix C.
“They can only”: Ibid., 115–18.
EPILOGUE
“A bad experiment”: R. V. Jones, “Thicker Than Heavy Water,” Chemistry and Industry, August 26, 1967.
The obliteration of”: Bagge and Diebner, 35.
“To live in the”: Drew, 205.
“They shall grow not”: Ibid., 222.
But whenever they: This conclusion is drawn by the author from the memoirs, interviews, and diaries of these individuals. Some, like Poulsson and Rønneberg, state this unequivocally.
Einar Skinnarland’s: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
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“smallness of being”: Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187.
Knut Haugland spent: Haugland Family, Author Interview.
“He died without”: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
Skinnarland did not: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“You have to fight”: “If Hitler Had the Bomb,” transcript from documentary at the Norsk Industriarbeidermuseum, Vemork.
Bibliography
* * *
On first blush, a bibliography often looks like a dry recounting of sources, some primary, others secondary. The list below does not do justice to the excitement that came with researching The Winter Fortress, from finding the diaries of Leif Tronstad and Einar Skinnarland, to the top-secret SOE files, to interviews with the families of the saboteurs, to the unpublished manuscripts of Colonel John Wilson, Rolf Sørlie, and the Skinnarland family during the war. Over the course of my research, I read through hundreds of books, some in English, some in Norwegian and German, many listed here. But the lion’s share of this story was constructed from reminiscences and interviews and memoirs of the key individuals as well as correspondence, action reports, diaries, and other archival papers written at the time these events unfolded.
ARCHIVES
United States
Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University (Boston, MA)
National Archives (College Park, MD)
Niels Bohr Library and Archives (College Park, MD)
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Archives and Special Collections (Troy, NY)
Norway
Norges Hjemmefrontmuseum (Oslo)
Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet Arkiv (Trondheim)
Norsk Industriarbeidermuseum (Vemork)
Germany
Bundesarchiv (Berlin)
Bundesarchiv (Freiburg)
Deutsches Museum Archiv (Munich)
United Kingdom
British Online Archives (Wakefield)
Imperial War Museum (London)
National Archives (Kew)
France
Archives Nationale (Paris)