by Unknown
59. To the Fates
The Fates (Greek Moirai) are three sisters who were thought to be responsible for certain immutable facts about the cosmos. Sometimes they are merged into the notion of a singular personified abstraction Fate. The word “moira” means “lot, portion.” When the early Greeks felt the need to explain why things happened to them the way they did, they cast their questions in terms of a personal “who is giving this” rather than an abstract “what is causing this,” and the Fates are an answer to the question of who is doing the giving; compare the concept of a daimōn (OH 73i). They thus represent what is allotted in life, the portion of life one receives. That this does not necessarily entail “preordained destiny” can be seen in the Iliad, where Akhilleus has a choice whether to return home, where he will live to a ripe old age but die unknown, or to return to battle, where he will die young but earn immortal glory (9.410–416). Euchenor, son of the seer Polyidos, had a somewhat similar choice: to stay home and die of sickness or to go to Troy and be killed by the Trojans (Iliad 13.663–670). In Plato’s “Myth of Er,” the souls about to be reborn are able to choose their next life, which is ratified by the Fates only after the choice is made (Republic 617d–621a). The idea that the Fates apportion destinies is a specific instance of the more general idea of apportioning limits on a cosmic level. The Fates also are the limits of the physical universe, and, since for the Greeks very often the physical structure of the world is also an ethical one, the Fates also delimit moral boundaries (see note to lines 8–10). In this connection, their role is sometimes expanded to being the protectors of these limits, punishing those who transgress the established boundaries, i.e., those who commit hubris. They are thus aligned with other divinities in our collection who are also concerned with maintenance of the cosmic order, such as Nemesis (OH 61), Justice (OH 63), Nomos (OH 64), and the Eumenides (OH 70). Most of all, though, they overlap with the Erinyes (OH 69), who in their hymn are actually called the Fates (translated “goddesses of fate” in line 16; see note).
In Hesiod, the Fates are the daughters of Zeus and Themis (Theogony 904–906), and this relationship symbolically marks them as part of the divine order, just as it does with their sisters, the Seasons (see OH 43i). Of course, the divine order existed before Themis became a wife of Zeus, and Hesiod gives the alternate account that Night bore the Fates parthenogentically (Theogony 217–222; see also OH 61i). In this genealogy, the order they represent is an essential part of the development of the world. Orphic accounts also make the Fates the daughters of earlier generations. They are born from the “first gods” (Orphic fragment 176) or, along with the Hundred-Handers and the Kyklopes, are the children of Earth and Sky (Orphic fragment 82). The Kretan seer Epimenides makes them the daughters of Kronos and says their sisters are the Erinyes and Aphrodite (fragment 51). This last detail is interesting, not only because of the close relationship between the Erinyes and Fates already described but also in light of the fact that our hymn seems to be part of a grouping of divinities explicitly linked to Aphrodite (OH 55–60). We find the Fates and Aphrodite connected elsewhere. Pausanias reports an inscription he saw in Athens which claimed that Aphrodite was the oldest of the Fates (1.19.2).
Our composer seems to have followed the Hesiodic version making Night the mother of the Fates. However, elsewhere in the collection, Night is called Kypris, another name of Aphrodite (see OH 3.2+n). This would further explain why the hymn to the Fates has been included among other figures connected with this goddess (see also OH 55i). Moreover, the “necessity” in line 18 of this hymn could possibly be understood as a personification. In this case, Aphrodite as “mother of Necessity” (see OH 55.3+n) would then be the mother of the Fates, thus reinforcing the equivalence between herself and Night.
3–4: The imagery used here is obscure. Those who dwell in caves near bodies of water are usually beings with definite chthonic connections, as, for example, the Erinyes in OH 69.3–4. Furthermore, the Fates themselves, called “daughters of Night” in line 1, are explicitly given chthonic coloring in this hymn. Here, however, it is clear that the location is celestial (see also OH 7.9n). The lake and the cave may have been imagined to be on Mount Olympos. Another possibility, though, is that the Fates are here being connected with the moon. This would certainly resolve the apparent contradiction, for the moon, while clearly a celestial body, nevertheless had strong chthonic ties. It was associated with Persephone, and indeed was sometimes thought to be the Isle of the Blest (for example, by Pythagoras; see Iamblichus Life of Pythagoras 82) or where souls went after death (see Plutarch De facie quae in orbe lunae apparet 942d–945d). The stars, too, could also be linked with souls (see OH 7.9n). In the lost poem Peplos (Robe), attributed to Orpheus, our source says that the Fates were allegorized as parts of the moon (with a wordplay here on the meaning of “moira,” “portion”). Furthermore, the Fates are said to be “clothed in white” insofar as they are parts of the moon’s light (Orphic fragment 407). It should be noted that the word here translated as “frozen” (Greek “leukos”) literally means “white,” a color that is sometimes used to describe moonlight. In the magical papyri, Moon is identified with the threads of the Fates (PGM 4.2795) and the singular being Fate (PGM 4.2861). It is true that celestial bodies were often thought to be composed of fire, but the moon was sometimes considered to be a mixture of fire and air—a view held by, among others, the Stoics (Plutarch De facie quae in orbe lunae apparet 921f), who thought that air froze water (Plutarch De primo frigido 949b–c)—and for Empedokles the moon was frozen air that had been separated from fire (Plutarch De facie quae in orbe lunae apparet 922c). It is possible then that our poet is allusively conveying the notion that the Fates dwell on the moon, and perhaps there is an intentional playing on the idea found in “Peplos” that the Fates are the moon.
5–6: Similarly, Nomos is imagined as having descended from the heavens to bring laws to the human race (OH 64.5).
6–7: The idea being expressed here seems to be that even the best-laid plans are worthless if the Fates do not grant fulfillment. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Kassandra’s last words before she goes offstage to her death are: “Ah, the fortunes of men. If all is going well,/a mere shadow may darken them all. But if they already fare poorly,/a wet sponge wipes the writing away,/and this I find to be the more pitiful” (1327–1330). The idea of personal destiny and personal fortune are closely related; see OH 72i.
8–10: These lines represent the idea that the Fates are antecedent to such abstractions as justice, hope, law, and order. These concepts are thus derivative of the physical and moral structure of the cosmos which the Fates embody and are thus responsible for maintaining (see also OH 8.16n and OH 64i). However, the Greek word “doxa,” here translated as “glory,” may also have the meaning “(fallible) opinion, fancy.” Under this reading, the word would have the connotation of self-delusion, with the chariot thus symbolizing the human drive to believe oneself capable of transgressing certain fixed limits (i.e., it would be symbolic of what the Greeks called “atē,” “blind infatuation, ruin,” which leads to hubris). The Fates’ “march toward men” in line 6 would then be with punitive intent, and the following lines would pick up the idea that unjust acts can never go unnoticed. See also OH 61.6–7+n. Of course, our composer could be playing on both meanings of the word.
11–14: For the eye of Zeus, see OH 62.1+n. The Fates, in addition to sometimes being the daughters of Zeus, are found together with him in cultic contexts. In Thebes, a sanctuary of the Fates was in close proximity to one of Zeus and another of Themis (Pausanias 9.25.4), thus recalling one of the Hesiodic genealogies. Zeus is sometimes worshipped as Moiragetes (Leader of Fates). He appears with the Fates in a relief on an altar to Persephone (Pausanias 8.37.1), and an altar probably belonging to him is near an altar to the Fates at Elis (Pausanias 5.15.5). The “Zeus’ mind [noos]” is comparable to the Stoic Khrysippos’ equation of the reason [logos] of Zeus with that which has been fated (Plutarch De Stoicorum repug
nantiis 1056c), and, according to the author of the Derveni Papyrus, Orpheus called Fate “phronēsis,” which might mean “thought” or “prudence” (see Betegh 2004, p. 39, for translation and pp. 200–202 for discussion).
16: These names are already in Hesiod (Theogony 905) and are standard in Greek myth. Klotho is the Spinner, Lakhesis the Alotter, and Atropos the Irreversible. They reflect the notion that every life is like a thread that Klotho provides, Lakhesis measures out (see also OH 61i), and Atropos cuts at the moment of death. This metaphor of the “thread of life” persisted throughout antiquity and indeed has continued into our own times.
17 airy, invisible: The Erinyes are also described this way (OH 69.9).
18 necessity: For the figure of Necessity in Orphic thought, see OH 55.3n. An important quality of the Fates is their inevitably (compare “inexorable” in line 17 and the meaning of the name Atropos), and thus they are often associated with Necessity who shares the same fixity. The Stoic Khrysippos equated Atropos with Pepromene (Destiny), Necessity, and Adrasteia (Plutarch De Stoicorum repugnantiis 1056c). Adrasteia is sometimes identified with Necessity, and sometimes with Nemesis, a divinity who overlaps somewhat with the Fates (see OH 61i). In Plato’s “Myth of Er,” the Fates are daughters of Necessity, and they turn the spindle that Plato portrays as the framework of the cosmos (Republic 616c–617d).
In the manuscripts, the last line of this hymn reads: “This is the end of the song of the Fates, which Orpheus composed.” It is a dactylic hexameter line, the same meter used in all of the hymns in the collection. It is possible that it was part of the original composition, although it is difficult to see why only this hymn asserts its Orphic authorship. The explicit mention of Orpheus perhaps is meant to distinguish it from another hymn to the Fates, now lost to us, which was not by Orpheus (or even mistakenly attributed to him). On the other hand, it might be that this hymn was separate from the collection and was later added, due to its similarity to the other hymns; the line could have been part of the original and simply retained. Then again, it might simply be the work of a playful scribe engaging in a little poetic license. In this scenario, the line would have been a marginal note that eventually was misunderstood to have been part of the hymn and appended to its end. The word translated “composed” literally means “wove.” While the metaphor of weaving a song is very old in Greek literature (Bacchylides 5.9), it is perhaps more than a coincidence that it was chosen for a hymn dedicated to divinities who are also closely connected with the metaphor of weaving (see note to line 16).
60. To the Graces
The Graces (Greek Kharites) are a plurality of female divinities concerned with beauty, merriment, and good cheer. Aglaia is Splendor, Thalia Festivity, and Euphrosyne Joy, and their names are indicative of their function. They are frequently connected, and even confused, with the Seasons (see OH 43i). There is also some linguistic and conceptual overlap between this hymn and the one to the Seasons. Like the latter, the Graces are “ever-blooming,” the third one listed is “(thrice-)blessed,” flowers are used to describe their physical beauty, and both groups are called on to bring fertility. The affinity between these two groups is made even more concrete since the mother of the Graces is Eunomia, one of the Seasons. This differs from the Hesiodic account, where they are also daughters of Zeus, but their mother is Eurynome, one of the daughters of Okeanos (Theogony 907–911). The Orphic Rhapsodies, however, agree with our hymn (Orphic fragment 254). For other variations of their names and genealogy, see Pausanias 9.35.1–7. Of particular interest is his mention of mysteries that were performed near their statue at the entrance of the Athenian acropolis (9.35.3). Euripides recounts that they were sent by Zeus along with the Muses to mollify Kybele-Demeter, who was angry at the abduction of her daughter Persephone (Helen 1338–1345; see OH 27i). The Graces are especially associated with Aphrodite. In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 5.60–64 they are the goddess’ attendants. In the Iliad Diomedes pierces Aphrodite’s robe, which was the handiwork of the Graces (5.337–338). Zeus orders Aphrodite to “pour grace around [Pandora’s] head,” and in the actual decking out of Pandora, the Graces themselves with the goddess Persuasion hang golden necklaces around her neck, while the Seasons crown her with a garland of spring flowers (Hesiod Works and Days 65 and 73–75). According to Pausanias, there was a sanctuary of the Graces at Elea where there were images of the goddesses—one holding a rose, another a die, the third a sprig of myrtle—and a statue of Eros next to them (6.24.6–7). Pausanias interprets this group by noting the symbolism of the rose and myrtle for Aphrodite and pointing out that young people, who are not yet marred by the ugliness of age, often play at dice.
The Graces’ close association with Aphrodite helps to explain why their hymn follows on the heels of hymns dedicated to this goddess (OH 55) and to those explicitly connected with her: Adonis, Chthonic Hermes, and Eros (OH 56–58). For the connection of the Fates with Aphrodite, see OH 59i. The Fates and the Graces are further bound together by way of their mother Eunomia, whose name means “law-abiding.” As her daughters, the Graces are part of that divine order in which their mother partakes (see OH 43i) and that is exemplified by the Fates (see OH 59i) and those goddesses to whom the subsequent hymns are dedicated: Nemesis, Dike (another Season, and so one of their aunts!), Justice, and Nomos (OH 61–64).
61. Hymn to Nemesis
Nemesis is another personified abstraction that became deified. Her name comes from the verb “nemō,” “I deal out, distribute.” She is the goddess of righteous indignation, who punishes those who transgress customs and laws. Hesiod makes her the daughter of Night (born from no father) and describes her as a “woe for mortals” (Theogony 223–234). A more positive portrayal of this goddess appears in the conclusion to his account of the Iron Race of men. There is so much wickedness in the world that Nemesis apparently gives the human race up and leaves with Aidos (Shame) to Olympos (Works and Days 197–201). Both indignation and shame were important forces in early society that helped prevent unjust deeds and consequently contributed to constructing a stable community. Hesiod subtly links Nemesis and Dike in the Works and Days, since Dike, too, leaves the earth in the face of wicked acts; she rushes to her father, Zeus, to demand punishment against those who have mistreated her (Works and Days 256–262; see also OH 62i and OH 69.9n).
Nemesis is connected with the Trojan War in an interesting variant. Zeus falls in love with her, but she flees his advances, out of shame and indignation (the words “aidos” and “nemesis” are used), since Zeus is her father. With the god in hot pursuit, she keeps changing herself into different animals, desperate to escape. Zeus catches up to her when she is in the form of a goose, and he mates with her in the form of a swan. Nemesis lays an egg, which is given to Leda, queen of Sparta, and out of the egg hatches Helen. The death and destruction that result in the war for her sake are thus connected with the righteous anger of Nemesis at the abuse of her father. For versions of this story, see Kypria fragment 7 (= Athenaios 8.334b–d), Apollodoros 3.10.7, and Pausanias 1.33.7; see also OH 79i. Other goddesses also become wrathful at such forced unions, e.g., Demeter at Poseidon (see OH 69i), and Persephone at Zeus (see OH 29i and OH 71.4–5+n).
This myth is reflected in the cult of Nemesis at Rhamnous, a town in Attika. Pausanias describes a statue by the famous sculptor Pheidias (modern scholars prefer to attribute it to his pupil Agorakritos) depicting Leda leading Helen to her mother Nemesis; also depicted is Leda’s husband, Tyndareus, with their children, as well as Agamemnon, Menelaos, Neoptolemos and Hermione, the daughter of Helen (1.33.8). The statue was built from marble that the Persians had arrogantly brought with them in their invasion of Attika, with the intent to build a trophy for the victory they felt inevitable; thus the goddess became explicitly connected with their defeat (Pausanias 1.33.2). The statue held an apple branch in its left hand and a libation bowl in its right (engraved with Ethiopians); on its head was a deer and images of Nike. The symbolism of Nike is clearly connected wi
th the defeat of the Persians. The apple branch suggests fertility connections, maybe even a connection with Aphrodite, while the deer perhaps hints at Artemis or some other similar ancient mistress of animals; see Larson 2007, pp. 179–180. Themis had a shrine in Nemesis’ sanctuary (see OH 79i). Nemesis was also worshipped at Smyrna, where the abstraction becomes a plurality of three Nemeses (Pausanias 7.5.3).
It is interesting that the Fates are placed before Nemesis in Hesiod’s list of Night’s progeny and that they are the ones who he says look over the deeds of mortals and gods and punish transgressions (Theogony 220–222). This is normally the purview of Nemesis. However, for the Greeks the ideas of justice and fate were intertwined in the cosmic order, so it is not surprising that at times divinities concerned with one of these should be concerned with the other as well (see OH 59i). Nemesis was sometimes called Adrasteia (Ineluctable) and invoked apotropaically before one would say something that could be construed as boasting or otherwise overbold (see, e.g., Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 936 and Plato Republic 451a). Adrasteia can function like Fate, too, and later is equated with Necessity; see West 1983, pp. 194–196. Nemesis became associated also with Tyche; compare lines 7–8 of the second century AD hymn to Nemesis by Mesomedes: “Beneath your wheel that neither ceases nor remains on the beaten track/there rolls the bright Tyche of men” and OH 72. Mesomedes further develops the idea of Nemesis as Fate through the image of scales (line 1, “O Nemesis, winged scales of life,” and line 13, “with scales in hand”) and the symbolism of measuring (line 11, “you measure out livelihood”; cf. Lakhesis the “allotter” at OH 59.16+n). This close relation probably influenced the placement of this hymn near the one dedicated to the Fates, and, insofar as Aphrodite is called “mother of Necessity” (OH 55.3), Nemesis could very well have been imagined as part of the Aphrodite block of hymns. The intimate bond between justice and the indignation that arises against those who transgress it further explains the grouping of this hymn with the three that follow it. The importance of acting in accordance to justice is thus emphasized. The first and last of the four (OH 64, to Nomos) are marked by their lack of offering, and it is likely that the initiates paused in their sacrifices and merely sang to these divinities. There is further a possible male/female pairing implied between Nemesis and Nomos (see OH 14.8–9n), whose names, incidentally, are etymologically related. The other two hymns sandwiched in between address the closely related pair of Dike and Justice. The themes of the blessings of justice and the inevitable punishment of the unjust unite all four and connect these figures with similar deities, namely, the Fates (OH 59), the Erinyes (OH 69), and the Eumenides (OH 70).