On the other hand, the Korean potters brought to Japan by those Daimyos who returned in triumph from the Korean expedition in the Bunroku Era (1592-1595), contributed much to the development of ceramic art in Japan, especially in the districts of Kyushu.
The Imari-yaki ware of Arita was much improved by a Korean potter Ri San-pei; the towns, Chōsa in Satsuma, Takatori in Chikuzen, Yatsushiro in Higo, and Hagi in Nagato were all new centers of porcelain industry, originated mainly by those potters brought to Japan from Korea.
6. ARCHITECTURE
The gorgeous spirit of the Momoyama period was expressed most eloquently in architectural construction and ornamentation. For the first time in this period Japanese architecture underwent a great change. Until now the history of Japanese architecture had been mostly religious; but at this time lay-buildings in large numbers came to outshine the temple buildings.
The most notable innovation appeared in castle architecture. Older castles had been simply in the shape of ramparts and stockades, but the introduction of fire-arms demanded a thorough improvement in their construction. Deep moats, generally two or three, one within the other, were now dug round the castle, while inside the moats, high stone walls were erected with tamon (gateways provided for the passage through the stone wall) and several storied towers were built at the corners. The gates had massive wooden doors provided with strong latches. Inside the gate there was a square court, and still further within it stood an inner gate reached by a bridge. Inside the castle proper, were built stately and magnificient palaces of shoin-zukuri architecture. Then a high central tower rose above all the buildings to add to the grandeur and to serve also as a vantage point for commanding a bird’s-eye view of the surrounding country.
Fig. 130. Raku-yaki Tea-Bowl, by Chōjirō
Tokyo Imperial Household Museum
The first great castle of this kind was erected at Azuchi by Nobunaga at the southern shore of Lake Biwa in Ōmi in the year 1576. The place is a wonderful landscape looking over the extensive water of the lake. However, it was destroyed in 1582 and today nothing remains except some of its stone walls and foundation stones. But there are reliable descriptions of the castle, recorded by a priest called Nanke, who actually saw the castle shortly after its completion. The Christian missionaries under the patronage of Nobunaga also reported its grandeur to their homes. According to such reliable records, the principal tower of the castle was seven-storied. Each room was wonderfully decorated with magnificient pictures and carvings in gold and other rich colors, never before seen in the architecture of castles. The attached palace-buildings were decorated with gorgeous designs, likewise in gold and rich colors.
The castle of Osaka, errected by Hideyoshi, was built on a much greater scale than that of Azuchi, and displayed fully his kingly greatness. This castle was, however, destroyed with the downfall of his son Hideyori, leaving only the extensive site and gigantic rocks of the foundation on which we see the new castle recently restored.
The castle of Fushimi near Kyoto, also errected by Hideyoshi in his later years, was likewise magnificient and included a number of various buildings. It survived the defeat of the Toyotomi family and its ownership passed into the hands of the Tokugawa Shogun. But in the time of the third Shogun of Tokugawa, it was destroyed and some of the dwelling quarters were transferred to different places where most of them remain, and show some of their original glory and splendor.
The castle of Himeji is the only existing specimen of a donjon erected by Hideyoshi in the Momoyama Period. (Fig. 131) The castle of Nagoya is the finest among the existent feudal castles in Japan. In it we see the specimens of a magnificient donjon and annexed palace-buildings, but they were built early in the following Yedo Period.
Parallel with the remarkable development of the castle architecture, residential buildings also made remarkable development. The most gorgeous dwelling houses were built in precincts of castles, as residential quarters of the lords. The architectural style of these residential buildings was called shoin-zukuri which had already begun to develop in the preceeding period. The highest development of the shoin-zukuri architecture was, however, reached in the residential buildings erected by Hideyoshi in the castle of Fushimi. Some fine examples of those buildings still remain in the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastery where they were transferred from the castle of Fushimi. Some fine examples of those buildings still remain in the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastery where they were transferred from the castle of Fushimi in the year 1632. The Momoyama Period was really the golden age of the shoin-zukuri architecture. The shoin-zukuri buildings of this period became much more gorgeous and decorative than were those in the preceding period, although the general plan was the same. The most important room in the shoin-zukuri architecture is the elevated room, called jodan-no-ma, which is used by the lord for guests or for the reception of his subjects.
Fig. 131. Castle of Himeji (N.T.)
(Gov. Rys. Photo.)
Fig. 132. Jodan-no-ma (N.T.)
Nishi-Hongwan-ji, Kyoto
In Fig. 132 we have one of the finest examples of the jodan-no-ma that remains in the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastry of Kyoto. As will be seen in the reproduction, the walls, sliding screens, and the ceiling are painted with various pictures in colors on the golden ground. Among them the most important and attractive painting is that on the wall of the largest recess, called toko-no-ma; and the next, are the pictures painted on the four heavy sliding screens called chodai-kazari which have heavy lacquered frames decorated with beautiful gilded metal fittings. Besides these, the cupboard called chigai-dana fixed in the smaller recess at the side of the greater recess, and the desk ledge called shoin-gamae by the window not shown in our reproduction, are also indispensible constructions in the shoin-zururi architecture. The ceiling is also gorgeous. In our reproduction it will be seen that it is coved and has compartments. The inside of each coffer is painted with flowers on gold leaf and the frames also are decorated with gilded metal fittings. The sliding screens called fusuma at the partitions of the rooms are all painted with pictures. This is also an essential interior decoration of the shoin-zukuri architecture. The frieze-like spaces of the wall, between the cornice and lintels are filled in with wooden panels with perforated carving, which is called ramma. The perforated carvings of the ramma were also painted elaborately in rich colors. In Fig. 133 we have selected a fine example of panel frieze in the same building of the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastery. It is a beautiful carving in open work, representing squirrels among grapes.
Fig. 133. Panel Frieze (N.T.)
Nishi-Hongwan-ji, Kyoto
After all, the highest kind of shoin-zukuri architecture should have the elevated room in which are an alcove (toko-no-ma), a cupboard (chigai-dana), a desk ledge (shoin-gamae), painted sliding screens (fusuma), the panel frieze (ramma), and four heavy panelled sliding screens (hodai-kazari).
Fig. 134. Open Gallery of the Shoin-zukuri
Except for the chodai-kazari all the others are essential interior decorations of the guest room of shoin-zukuri architecture, even of a meager kind.
The floor of the shoin-zukuri architecture is quite simple. It is only laid with straw mats, called tatami. The broad open gallery called hiro-en or irigawa which opens to the garden is another characteristic feature of the shoin-zukuri architecture as will be seen in Fig. 134. It is very spacious. It makes a happy combination with the garden and gives a feeling of space.
The gateways attached to the shoin-zukuri architecture also displayed magnificent decorations.
There still remain in Kyoto three gorgeous and magnificient gates, which had once expressed the pride of Hideyoshi or of his generals at the castle of Fushimi. One stands as the gate of the Hokoku Shrine which was erected to the soul of Hideyoshi. Another gate stands at the entrance of the Nijō castle which was built by Ieyasu, the first Tokugawa Shogun, the rival and successor to Hideyoshi. The third one remains at the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastery in Kyoto. They are all called “Kara-mon” gates, but t
he most elaborate and magnificient is that which stands at the Nishi-Hongwan-ji monastery. (Fig. 135) It has three pillars or uprights at both ends, a circular one at the middle and two square ones at the outer side, linked together by horizontal members. These six pillars support the splendidly shaped roof covered with the bark of hinoki wood. The front and back eaves are gabled in the Chinese fashion called karahafu. The shape resembles the upper jaw of a lion and has a heavy and oppressive look. But the gables of the right and left sides are shaped in Japanese fashion called chidori-hafu which has a triangular form with a pointed top as if soaring to heaven, and are quite in contrast to the oppressive style of the Chinese gables. The pillars, doors, beams, and ribs are all thoroughly coated with black lacquer on which brilliant metal fittings are profusely set with gorgeous effect. Over the lintel a large carved peacock stretches its splendid plumage decorated with bright colors and gold leaves. On the beams of both sides are large tigers with bamboos carved and colored. The beam-ends are carved in the forms of lions and peonies. On the transverse panels in open work are represented the heroes of Chinese legends. (Fig. 136) And on the door panels are conventional lions in various forms. As a whole all the subjects of design are taken from the Chinese classics, but in them are expressed the gorgeous spirit of the times and the Japanese originality in composition.
Fig. 135. Kara-mon Gate (N.T.)
Nishi-Hongwan-ji, Kyoto
In contrast with such imposing buildings as the castle and shoin-zukuri architecture, there developed an extremely simple kind of architecture. It was the tea-ceremony house called chashitsu (tearoom) or sukiya (a house of the imperfect). Its development was influenced entirely by the tea-ceremony The tearoom was already initiated in the preceding period by the Shogun Yoshimasa. It was the famous tearoom of four and a half mats, which still remains in the Tōgū-dō erected in the garden of the Jishō-ji monastery in Kyoto.
Fig. 136. Open Work of the Kara-mon Gate
Nishi-Hongwan-ji, Kyoto
It is, however, nothing more than the room where tea was served in a simple shoin-zukuri building. But in this period, Rikyū, the celebrated master of tea-ceremony appeared and tea-ceremony house architecture made an independent development under his directions. One of the most conspicuous changes was that the four and a half mats space of the original tearoom began to be lessened until it finally reached as small a space as one mat and a half. The material used was also very humble and crude and the construction was quite simple. For example, pillars with bark were used and rafters were made of boughs or bamboo; the walls were made of rough earth, and the entrance was so small that the guests had to creep in. The window is also the simplest. The ceiling was generally made of reed or bamboo. The roof was usually thatched with straw. The garden attached to the tearoom was also left as natural as possible. The essential idea of Rikyū was that the things which happened to be at hand should be used ingeniously in some way or other so that a highly tasteful result might be secured.
It is highly interesting to note that there were two contradictory aspects in the architecture of this period; that is, the magnificent castle and gorgeous shoin-zukuri architecture on one hand; and on the other the simple and archaic architecture of the tearoom house. Such contradiction would be the outcome of the human desire for change and variety. The tearoom architecture has continued to the present day, passing through the entire length of the Yedo Period; but in many examples of the later tearoom architecture, the principle of the tea-ceremony established by Rikyū has often lost its true meaning.
Fig. 137. Shōnan-tei Tea-ceremony House (N.T.)
Saihō-ji, near Kyoto
There still remain three important examples of the tea-ceremony house from this period. One is the Myōki-an of Yamasaki, Kyoto prefecture; the second is the tea-ceremony house in the precinct of the Shinto shrine called Minase-gū near Yamasaki; and the third one is the Shōnan-tei at the Saihō-ji monastery, Kyoto. They are all enrolled as national treasures.
In Fig. 137 we have reproduced a general view of the Shōnan-tei, a tea-ceremony house built in the Keichō Era (1596-1614). The house has a high floored open verandah in front. Its structure is quite a rare example. The ceiling is made of hardened earth. The design of the inside is very simple but beautifully done, as will be seen in Fig. 138. The light is so well diffused into the room through the windows that it gives a feeling of brightness when one enters the room.
Of the Buddhist architecture of the Momoyama Period the entrance porch and the main hall of Zuigan-ji monastery at Matsushima and the Kondō or Golden Hall of Tō-ji monastery in Kyoto will perhaps be the most noteworthy examples among those which still remain.
Fig. 138. Interior of Shōnan-tei Tea-ceremony House (N.T.)
Saihō-ji, near Kyoto
Of the Shinto architecture, a new style called gongen-zukuri first came into existence in this period. The building of Ōsaki Hachiman Shrine at Sendai is the oldest example of the gongen-zukuri architecture. It was erected by Date Masamune, the Lord of Sendai in the twelfth year of Keichō (1607), and displays gorgeous features characteristic of the Momoyama Period. It has a main hall and an oratory, connected by a stone-floored chamber. The ground plan is complicated and the roofs of various sizes form what is called yatsumune-zukuri or eight-ridged construction, presenting a beautiful variety. The roofs are thatched with shingles of hinoki bark. The lower half of the constructural members of this building, namely the panels, pillars, and floors, are all black lacquer and glitter with glossiness. With the black lacquered surface, gilded metal fittings are used profusely. The upper part, namely the various horizontal members, groups of brackets, kaeru-mata, or frog-leg supporters, are decorated beautifully with polychromatic designs and carvings. The exterior as well as interior color harmony are most wonderful. It is an interesting feature of this architecture that its interior decoration expresses a feature of Shinto and Buddhism. The carving of Buddhist angels on the friezes carries out this idea most conspicuously, as will be noticed in Fig. 139.
Fig. 139. Interior of Ōsaki Hachiman (N.T.)
Sendai (Photo, taken by the author)
CHAPTER 10
Plebeian Art: The Yedo Period 1615-1866 A.D.
1. GENERAL SURVEY
The Yedo Period lasted from 1615 to 1866, covering about two centuries and a half. It was the most peaceful period of national seclusion in Japanese history, during which time literature and arts first made remarkable progress among the masses. Before this, the culture of each period had been almost entirely monopolized by a specific class, such as court nobles, military aristocrats, or Buddhist priests, and commoners scarcely benefited from the culture developed among these privileged classes. However, in this period, plebeians could think for themselves and do as they liked. In the course of these peaceful years they accumulated wealth, while the military men, who now had to live only upon a definite emolument given by the government of the Shogun or feudal lords, gradually became so poor that they could not enjoy comforts and amusements.
In 1603, Ieyasu became Shogun and established his Shogunate in Yedo. But on the other hand, Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi, still held the castle of Osaka against the Tokugawa Shogunate, until he was totally crushed by the force of Ieyasu in the year 1615. After this, Yedo became the most important social, and political, center. As all the feudal lords had to reside periodically in Yedo, they built mansions, thus attracting merchants and artisans to the city.
It immediately became great and prosperous, so that scholars and artists also followed and ultimately made it a center for literature and fine arts, which gave birth to what we now call the plebeian culture.
The first Shogun, Ieyasu, instructed his successors not to use military power for governing the people, though they might use it to bring the country under their sway. This precept was observed strictly in his generation. During the beginning of the Yedo Period, that is about the first half of the seventeenth century, a warlike spirit still pervaded society. A valiant touch was naturall
y shown in the painting of the day, and a grand style, the heritage of the preceding Momoyama Period,was shown in the architecture.
In these early years of Yedo, mausoleum architecture took the place of the castle-building that had marked the preceding period, because big castles menacing the peace of neighbors was strictly prohibited. Among the famous mausoleums are Tōshōgu Shrine at Kunōzan, Suruga province; Daitoku-in at Shiba, Tokyo; and Nikko Shrine in Shimozuke province. Of these, Nikko Shrine is the finest.
The Genroku Era (1688-1704) was most significant in the development of the plebeian arts. A hundred years previously the warlike spirit still prevailed and social life was not yet well harmonized. But during the Genroku Era, effeminacy and luxury crept into every tissue of the social organization. It was indeed in the Genroku Era that such popular literature as “haikai” and popular drama made a great advance and opened a new world of popular literature. Te pompous and flowery manner of life was shown in gay robes of rich colors and bold designs. There were many artists who tried to make a mark in this new world.
Painting made unprecedented development. A number of master painters appeared in different branches of painting and established new schools.
Sculpture, generally speaking, declined except for small things such as masks, netsuke, and so forth.
Industrial fine art made striking progress in Yedo, the seat of the Shogun, Kyoto, and many local districts under the patronage of feudal lords. Pottery, gold lacquer, and textile industries made the most remarkable progress in every direction.
2. PAINTING
A History of Japanese Art Page 19