Comte’s overall scheme for his religion began with a plan for an enormous new priesthood, which would employ 100,000 people in France alone. Despite the shared title, these priests were to be very different from those of the Catholic Church: they would be married, well integrated into the community and entirely secular, combining the skills of philosophers, writers and what we would now call psychotherapists. Their mission was to nurture the capacities for happiness and the moral sense of their fellow citizens. They would engage in therapeutic conversations with those plagued by problems at work or in love, deliver secular sermons and write jargon-free philosophical texts on the art of living. Along the way, this new priesthood would provide steady employment for the sort of people (among whose ranks Comte counted himself) who possessed a strong desire to help others and cultural and aesthetic interests, but who had been stymied by an inability to find work in universities and were thus forced to eke out an insecure living by writing for newspapers or peddling books to an indifferent public.
Because Comte appreciated the role that architecture had once played in bolstering the claims of the faiths, he proposed the construction of a network of secular churches — or, as he called them, churches for humanity. These would be paid for by bankers, for in his estimation the emergent banking class contained an unusually high proportion of individuals who were not only extremely wealthy but also intelligent, interested in ideas and capable of being swayed towards goodness. In a gesture of gratitude, the exterior façades of these secular churches would feature prominent busts of their banker-donors, while inside, large halls would be decorated with portraits of the pantheon of the new religion’s secular saints, including Cicero, Pericles, Shakespeare and Goethe, all singled out by the founder for their capacity to inspire and reassure us. Above a west-facing stage, inscribed in large gold letters, an aphorism would sum up Comte’s belief in intellectual self-help: ‘Connais-toi pour t’ameliorer’ (‘Know yourself to improve yourself’). Priests would deliver daily talks on such subjects as the importance of being kind to one’s spouse, patient with one’s colleagues, earnest in one’s work and compassionate towards the less fortunate. Churches would become the locus for a continuous round of festivals of Comte’s own inventive design: in the springtime there would be a celebration in honour of wives and mothers, in the summer, one to mark the momentous contribution of the iron industry to human progress and in the winter a third to offer thanks to domestic and farm animals like dogs, pigs and chickens.
Comte knew that the traditional faiths had cemented their authority by providing their adherents with daily or even hourly schedules of whom or what they ought to think about, rotas which were typically pegged to the commemoration of a holy figure or supernatural incident. So in the religion of humanity, every month would be officially devoted to a specific field of endeavour — from marriage and parenthood to art, science, agriculture and carpentry — and every day within that month to an individual who had made a significant contribution to a field. In November, the month of craft, the 12th, for example, would be the day of Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the industrial cotton-spinning mill, and the 22nd of Bernard Palissy, the French Renaissance potter, a model of endurance who famously tried for sixteen fruitless years to reproduce the glaze on Chinese porcelain.
2.
Regrettably, Comte’s unusual, complex, sometimes deranged but always thought-provoking project was derailed by a host of practical obstacles. Its author was denounced by both atheists and believers, ignored by the general public and mocked by the newspapers. Towards the end of his life, despairing and frail, he took to writing long and somewhat threatening letters in defence of his religion to monarchs and industrialists across Europe — including Louis Napoleon, Queen Victoria, the Crown Prince of Denmark, the Emperor of Austria, 300 bankers and the head of the Paris sewage system — few of whom even bothered to reply, much less offered their financial support. Without seeing any of his ideas realized, Comte died at the age of fifty-nine, on 5 September 1857, or, according to his own calendar, in the month of philosophy, on the day honouring the achievements of the French astronomer Nicolas Lacaille, who in the eighteenth century had identified more than 10,000 stars in the southern hemisphere and now has a crater named after him on the dark side of the moon.
3.
Notwithstanding its many oddities, Comte’s religion is hard to dismiss out of hand, for it identified important fields in atheistic society that continue to lie fallow and to invite cultivation and showed a pioneering interest in generating institutional support for ideas. His ability to sympathize with the ambitions of traditional religions, to study their methods and to adapt them to the needs of the modern world reflected a level of creativity, tolerance and inventiveness to which few later critics of religion have been capable of rising.
Comte’s greatest conceptual error was to label his scheme a religion. Those who have given up on faith rarely feel indulgent towards this emotive word, nor are most adult, independent-minded atheists much attracted to the idea of joining a cult. That Comte was not particularly sensitive to such subtleties was made clear when he began to refer to himself as ‘the Great Priest’, a pronouncement which must at a stroke have wiped out his appeal among the more balanced members of his audience.
Comte’s legacy, nevertheless, was his recognition that secular society requires its own institutions, ones that could take the place of religions by addressing human needs which fall outside the existing remits of politics, the family, culture and the workplace. His challenge to us lies in his suggestion that good ideas will not be able to flourish if they are always left inside books. In order to thrive, they must be supported by institutions of a kind that only religions have so far known how to build.
While no churches for the Religion of Humanity were ever built in Comte’s lifetime, several decades after his death a group of Brazilian enthusiasts (one of them, as Comte himself had predicted, a wealthy banker) came together to fund the first such institution in Paris. They initially planned to erect a large edifice in the Place de la Bastille, but after reviewing the scope of their funds, they settled instead on adapting an apartment on the first floor of a building in the Marais. They hired an artist about whom history has subsequently been silent to paint portraits of the founder’s secular saints and, at the front of the converted living room, an imposing neo-altarpiece of a woman and child, representing Humanity holding the Future in her arms. (illustration credit 10.11)
Comte’s secular saints included Gutenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes and the physiologist Bichat. (illustration credit 10.12)
iii. Conclusion
1.
A central problem with any attempt to rethink some of the needs left unmet by the ebbing of religion is novelty.
Whereas we are for the most part well disposed to embrace the new in technology, when it comes to social practices, we are as deeply devoted to sticking with what we know. We are reassured by traditional ways of handling education, relationships, leisure time, ceremonies and manners. We are especially resistant to innovations which can be pegged to the thought of one person alone. To have the best chance of being taken up, ideas should seem like the product of common sense or collective wisdom rather than an innovation put forward by any single individual. What would likely be seen as a bold innovation in software can too easily, in the social sphere, come across as a cult of personality.
It is to the benefit of most religions that they have been around for many centuries, a characteristic which appeals strongly to our fondness for what we are accustomed to. We naturally defer to practices that we would reject as extraordinary if they were newly suggested to us. A few millennia can do wonders to render a fanciful idea respectable. A ritual pilgrimage to the shrine of St Anthony may be inherently no less strange, and perhaps even more irrational, than a pilgrimage around an orbital motorway, but the shrine in Padua enjoys at least one great advantage over the M25 in having been in place since the middle of the thirteenth century.
2.
Fortunately for the concepts examined here, none are new. They have existed for most of human history, only to be over-hastily sacrificed a few hundred years ago on the altar of Reason and unfairly forgotten by secular minds repelled by religious doctrines.
It has been the purpose of this book to identify some of the lessons we might retrieve from religions: how to generate feelings of community, how to promote kindness, how to cancel out the current bias towards commercial values in advertising, how to select and make use of secular saints, how to rethink the strategies of universities and our approach to cultural education, how to redesign hotels and spas, how better to acknowledge our own childlike needs, how to surrender some of our counterproductive optimism, how to achieve perspective through the sublime and the transcendent, how to reorganize museums, how to use architecture to enshrine values — and, finally, how to coalesce the scattered efforts of individuals interested in the care of souls and organize them under the aegis of institutions.
3.
It has already been conceded that a book cannot achieve very much on its own. It can, however, be a place to lay down ambitions and begin to sketch out some intellectual as well as practical trajectories. The essence of the argument presented here is that many of the problems of the modern soul can successfully be addressed by solutions put forward by religions, once these solutions have been dislodged from the supernatural structure within which they were first conceived. The wisdom of the faiths belongs to all of mankind, even the most rational among us, and deserves to be selectively reabsorbed by the supernatural’s greatest enemies. Religions are intermittently too useful, effective and intelligent to be abandoned to the religious alone.
Acknowledgements
I am deeply indebted to the following for their help in the writing, thinking through or production of this book: Deirdre Jackson, Dorothy Straight, Joana Niemeyer, Richard Baker, Cecilia Mackay, Grainne Kelly, Richard Holloway, Charles Taylor, Mark Vernon, John Armstrong, James Wood, A. C. Grayling, Robert Wright, Sam Harris, Terry Eagleton, Niall Ferguson, John Gray, Lucienne Roberts, Rebecca Wright, Simon Prosser, Anna Kelly, Juliette Mitchell, Dan Frank, Nicole Aragi, Caroline Dawnay, Phil Chang and his team, Thomas Greenall, Jordan Hodgson, Nigel Coates and Charlotte, Samuel and Saul de Botton.
Picture Credits
Andrew Aitchison: 2.16; akg-images: 3.3, 4.6; akg-images/Stefan Drechsel: 9.3 (left); Alamy/ Gari Wyn Williams: 3.7; Archconfraternity of San Giovanni Decollato, Rome: 8.6 (left); Archivio Fotografico Messaggero S. Antonio Editrice/Giorgio Deganello: 4.9; Arktos: 9.2; Axiom/Timothy Allen: 2.2; Richard Baker: 4.1, 4.2, 4.15, 4.17, 4.18, 4.19, 4.20, 10.5; Every Word Unmade, 2007, by Fiona Banner, courtesy of the Artist and Frith Street Gallery, London: 8.3; from Brigitte et Bernard © Audrey Bardou: 8.5 (below); from The Roman Missal, 1962 © Baronius Press, 2009: 2.7; Nathan Benn: 2.14; Jean-Christophe Benoist: 1.2; © Bibliothèque Nationale de France: 4.16; Big Pictures: 6.2; Bridgeman Art Library/Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris: 10.10; Bridgeman/British Library, London: 3.1; Bridgeman/Chiesa del Gesù, Rome: 9.3 (right); Bridgeman/Church of the Gesuiti, Venice/Cameraphoto Arte Venezia: 1.1; Bridgeman/Duomo, Siena: 2.9; Bridgeman/ Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge: 4.13; Bridgeman/Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence: 5.1, 8.4 (above); Bridgeman/Galleria dell’ Accademia Carrara, Bergamo: 5.4; Bridgeman/Hermitage, St Petersburg: 8.21 (below); Bridgeman/Neil Holmes: 9.7; Bridgeman/© Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston: 8.17; Bridgeman/Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Besançon/Giraudon: 8.8 (above); Bridgeman/Musée du Louvre, Paris/Giraudon: 8.1, 8.16; Bridgeman/Museo di San Marco dell’Angelico, Florence/Giraudon: 8.18 (above); Bridgeman/Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar: 8.7; Bridgeman/National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo/Photo © Zev Radovan: 2.11; Bridgeman/Noortman Master Paintings, Amsterdam: 6.1; Bridgeman/Prado, Madrid: 8.14 (above); Bridgeman/Private Collection: 4.7; Bridgeman/St Peter’s, Vatican City: 8.12 (above); Bridgeman/Scrovegni Chapel, Padua: 3.4; by kind permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library: 3.6; Camera Press, London/Butzmann/Laif: 2.6; © Nicky Colton-Milne: 2.12; from the Garden Ruin series © François Coquerel: 8.9 (below); Corbis/Robert Mulder/Godong: 2.15; Corbis/Bob Sacha: 4.11; Jean-Pierre Dalbéra: 10.11, 10.12; Fczarnowski: 5.2; Peter Aprahamian/Freud Museum, London: 3.8 (below); Gabinetto Fotografico Nazionale, Rome: 8.6 (right); from the Remember Me series © Preston Gannaway/Concord Monitor: 8.13 (below); Getty Images: 8.19 (below), 9.1, 10.4; Thomas Greenall & Jordan Hodgson: 2.10, 2.18, 3.5, 3.8 (above), 4.8, 5.5, 6.4, 7.1, 8.11, 8.23, 9.6, 9.8, 9.11, 10.3, 10.6 (below); Dan Hagerman: 10.8; from The Sunday Missal © HarperCollins, 1984: 4.12; istockphoto.com: 9.10 (above); Rob Judges: 4.3; New York, c.1940, by Helen Levitt © Estate of Helen Levitt, courtesy Laurence Miller Gallery, New York: 8.15 (below); Linkimage/Gerry Johansson: 2.1; Red Slate Circle, 1987, by Richard Long. Courtesy of the Artist and Haunch of Venison, London © Richard Long. All Rights Reserved. DACS, 2010: 8.22 (below); Mary Evans Picture Library: 2.17; © Mazur/catholicchurch.org.uk: 2.4, 2.5, 2.8, 8.10 (below); © Museum of London: 9.10; Naoya Fujii: 9.5; PA Photos/AP/Bernat Armangue: 2.13; PA Photos/Balkis Press/Abacapress: 10.7; Panos Pictures/Xavier Cevera: 4.4; John Pitts: 9.10 (below); from Contrasts, 1841, by A.W.N. Pugin: 9.4; Reuters/Yannis Behrakis: 6.3; Reuters/STR: 10.9; Rex Features: 3.5 (inset), 4.14; Lucienne Roberts & David Shaw: 3.2, 10.6 (above); Scala/Art Institute of Chicago: 5.5 (inset); Scala/Pierpont Morgan Library, New York: 4.5, 4.10; Scala/ White Images: 8.20 (above); Untitled — October 1998, by Hannah Starkey, courtesy Maureen Paley, London: 2.3; Mathew Stinson: 5.3; National Gallery I, London 1989 by Thomas Struth, courtesy of the artist and Marian Goodman Gallery, New York/Paris © Thomas Struth: 8.2; Westminster Cathedral, London: 8.10 (above); Katrina Wiedner: 140, 9.9.
Index
Italic page numbers indicate illustrations
abortion
advertising 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 10.1
aesthetics
afterlife, theories of 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 6.1
agape feasts
Agnes of Montepulciano, St 1.1, 1.2
akrasia 4.1
Alabbar, Mohamed 10.1
Ando, Tadao: Christian Church of the Light 9.1
Angelico, Fra: Last Judgement 8.1
anger 2.1, 3.1
Anthony of Padua, St 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 8.1, 10.1
Apollonia, St
apologizing 2.1, 4.1
Aquinas, St Thomas
architecture: and aesthetics 9.1, 9.2 Buddhist 1.1, 9.3; Christian 9.4
Arkwright, Sir Richard
Armani, Giorgio 10.1, 10.2
Arnold, Matthew 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6
art: Christian 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1, 8.2 contemporary 8.3, 8.4, 8.5; education in 4.1, 4.2, 4.3; purpose and significance of 8.6, 8.7, 8.8
art galleries see museums and art galleries
astronomy 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 9.1, 10.1
Augustine, St 2.1, 4.1, 4.2
Bach, Johann Sebastian 1.1, 5.1
Banner, Fiona: Every Word Unmade 8.1
Baptists 4.1, 4.2
Bar Mitzvah 2.1, 2.2
Bardou, Audrey 8.1, 8.2
Bashō
bathing, ritual 4.1, 4.2
Bedouin
Bellini, Giovanni 1.1, 5.1, 8.1
Bellow, Saul
bereavement 1.1, 2.1
Bernard of Clairvaux, St
Bible 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 9.1, 10.1;Book of Job 7.1, 7.2; Deuteronomy 4.3; Genesis 4.4; Leviticus 2.1; Psalms 3.3, 4.5, 4.6; Romans 3.4
Bichat, Marie François Xavier
Bildad the Shuhite
birkat ilanot (Jewish prayer) 10.1
Birkat Ilanot (Jewish festival) 10.1
Boccaccio, Giovanni
Book of Common Prayer
Book of Hours 4.1
books: manufacture and sale 4.1, 10.1, 10.2; reading 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 8.1
branding 10.1, 10.2
Brueghel, Jan, the Younger: Paradise 6.1
Buddhism 4.1; Eightfold Path 1.
1; Guan Yin 5.1, 5.2; mandalas 8.1, 8.2; meditation 4.2, 4.3; reincarnation 1.2, 1.3; retreats 4.4; places of worship 9.1, 9.2; see also Zen Buddhism
Buffett, Warren
calendars, religious 4.1, 4.2, 7.1
Calvin, John 9.1, 9.2
Campaña, Pedro: The Seven Sorrows of
the Virgin 8.1
capitalism 2.1, 9.1
careerism 2.1, 2.2
Cassatt, Mary 8.1; The Child’s Bath5.1
Catholicism: aestheticism 9.1, 9.2; confession 10.1; cura animarum 10.2; edicts and decrees 10.3; Eucharist 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4; Marian cult 5.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4; Mass 2.5, 2.6, 2.7; Missal 2.8, 2.9; prayer 4.1, 4.2, 5.2; retreats 4.3; revenue 10.4; saints 3.1; Stations of the Cross 8.5, 8.6
chanoyu see Zen Buddhism
charity
Chekhov, Anton
child-raising 3.1, 3.2
China 6.1; Buddhism 5.1
Christian art see art: Christian
Christian calendar 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 7.1
Christian education 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
Christianity: agape feasts 2.1; annunciation 1.1, 8.1; Book of Common Prayer 4.1; crucifixion 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5; early development of 1.2, 4.2; Eucharist 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5; Feast of Fools (festum
fatuorum) 2.1, 2.2; Gospels 2.3, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 8.1; Marian cult 5.2, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5; Mass 2.4, 2.5, 2.6; Missal 2.7, 2.8; Original Sin 3.1; pilgrimages 4.3, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1; prayer 4.4, 5.3; saints 3.2, 9.3; sermons and oratory 1.1, 1.2, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; Stations of the Cross 8.6, 8.7; Ten Commandments 3.3; Trinity 1.3; see also Catholicism; churches; Protestantism
Christmas
churches (buildings) 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
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