The Modern Middle East - A Political History Since World War I (Third Edition)

by Mehran Kamrava

  Allon, Yigael/Allon Plan, 319–20

  Al-Maliki, Nouri, 207

  Al-Qaeda/bin Laden, 189fig, 199–201, 208; Iraq, 203, 206; September 11, 2001, 172, 190, 194–96, 200–204, 261

  alternance, Morocco, 230, 238

  Al-Wefaq Party, 272

  Amer, Abdel Hakim, 112, 122

  American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), 197–98

  Amini, Ali, 147

  Amir, Yigal, 325

  Amnesty International, 150, 319, 368

  Amuzegar, Jamshid, 149

  Anatolia: Armenians, 53; Ottomans, 21–23, 28, 47; Southeast Anatolian Development Project (GAP), 402; Sykes-Picot Agreement, 40. See also Turkey

  Anderson, Benedict, 69

  Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), 144

  Annual Arab Public Opinion Survey, 199, 266–67

  anti-Americanism, Middle East, 186, 196–99, 207–8

  anti-Semitism, European, 70, 73–74, 301, 417n15

  Aoun, Michel, 249, 288

  Arab Christians, 107, 245–48; Arab-Israeli, 245–48, 440n93; Iraq, 188; Levant, 10, 37, 38, 44, 247–49, 288, 334; Palestinian, 74

  Arab Common Market attempt, 381

  Arab Cooperation Council, 184

  Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco), 63–64, 416n83

  Arabian peninsula, 1, 51; Britain and, 3, 38–40, 63, 65–66, 114, 232, 238; economic globalization, 384; Islam born in, 4, 7, 9, 10, 14–19; majlis (council), 273, 284; Najd, 51, 62, 63; Nasser and, 115; Ottomans and, 23, 28, 39, 62, 63; and political opposition, 250; Sassanids, 9–10, 11, 17, 18; statism, 352; sultanistic states, 215; Sykes-Picot Agreement, 38, 40; with West vs. communists, 95. See also Hijaz; oil monarchies, Arabian peninsula; Yemen

  Arabic language, 1, 3, 54, 106, 122

  Arabism (Arab nationalism), 71–73, 84–88, 107, 113–14, 190; Algeria and, 106, 228; Hijaz, 66, 71, 417n9; Iraq and, 72, 113–14, 171–75, 177, 191–92, 208–9; Islamism and, 194, 313; Nasser and, 90–91, 97–98, 106–9, 113–14, 137–38, 172, 190–93. See also Palestinian nationalism; Pan-Arabism

  Arab-Israeli ethnicity: bedouin, 306; Israeli discrimination and bias toward, 246, 263, 318–22, 322fig; Palestinians in Israel, 2, 242, 306, 309; religions, 245–48, 440n93

  Arab-Israeli wars, 4, 82–84, 108–38, 193, 345–46; 1948, 83–84, 89table, 90, 91, 92, 98–99, 420n67; 1956, 96, 110, 247; War of Attrition, 123, 126, 127–28. See also October 1973 War; Palestinian-Israeli conflict; peace process, Arab-Israeli; Six-Day War (1967)

  Arab League, 110; Egypt and, 114, 123, 192, 193, 455n83; paralyzed, 193; and PLO, 117, 136; and Second Gulf War, 186; summits, 136, 193; and Yemen, 116

  Arab Revolt (1916–18), vs. Ottomans, 28, 35, 39–40, 62

  Arab Revolt (1936–39), Palestinians vs. British, 80, 85, 88–89

  Arabs: “Afghan Arabs,” 199–200; Annual Arab Public Opinion Survey, 199, 266–67; balance of weakness, 194, 199; Gulf migrant workers, 393; Iranian revolution widening rift with, 171, 172; Jordan’s image among, 191; Lebanese identity, 248; Middle Eastern ethnic majority, 1–2; Moroccan Berbers united with, 101; UN land for peace resolution and, 125. See also Arab Christians; Arabism (Arab nationalism); Arab-Israeli ethnicity; Arab-Israeli wars; bedouins; Palestinians; Pan-Arabism; peace process, Arab- Israeli

  Arab Socialist Union (ASU), Egypt, 95, 102, 127, 134, 219, 250–51, 254

  Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 4–6, 35–36, 217, 250, 280–81, 290–98, 385–86; Bahrain, 239, 267, 275, 291, 295; despair and, 405; developments leading to, 267, 271–72, 372–73; economic development after, 385; Egypt, 5, 217, 267, 275, 291–95, 293fig, 386; Jordan, 231, 239; Libya, 5, 217, 267, 275, 291, 294–95; military after, 221; Morocco, 239, 291; official/unofficial nationalism and, 275; Saudi Arabia, 275, 295; Syria and civil war (2011–13), 5, 217, 223, 267, 291, 294–96, 297fig, 447n124; Tunisia, 5, 217, 251–52, 267, 275, 291–95, 386; Yemen, 291, 294, 296; youth employment and, 266

  Arafat, Yasser, 124–25, 312fig; bodyguard numbers, 330; Camp David II, 332–34; death, 338; and intifada, 312, 336; Oslo Accords, 328–34, 329fig; and PLO legitimacy, 136, 449n28; Wye River Memorandum, 331

  Aramco, 63–64, 416n83

  Argentina, democratization, 281

  Armenians, 21–22; Lebanon, 247; massacred, 27, 410n60; Turkish nationalism and, 27, 28, 53

  arts: Ilkhanids and, 21–22; Iranian Third Republic and, 165; Palestinian, 87. See also literature

  Ashkenazim, 302–7

  Asia: China, 18, 139, 140; democracy, 258, 265; economic development, 347–48, 361–62, 377; Indonesia, 92–93, 258; Jews from, 303; Muslims in Afghan fight vs. Soviets, 200; North Korea in axis of evil, 201; oil workers from, 369; population data, 388, 393; regional trading partnerships, 377, 380table; U.S. military presence, 201; Vietnam, 137, 140, 184. See also India

  al-Assad family, 436n10, 439n78; Bashar, 217, 222–23, 269, 276, 291, 387; Hafiz, 132, 173, 215, 219, 222–23, 228, 276, 437n36

  assimilation: Algerians by French, 48, 65, 99–100, 102–3, 228; Jewish, 74; liberal, 101; Mizrachim with Ashkenazim, 306; Palestinian diaspora, 309–10; into urban mainstream, 408n14

  associations, 284–85; Iran, 32, 284, 287; Morocco, 284, 285, 287; Palestinian, 124, 285; professional and/or business associations, 253, 284. See also confederations; international allies; organizations; political opposition; political parties

  Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 377

  Aswan Dam, 95–96

  Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 28, 39, 51–56; death (1938), 53; exclusionary leader, 228; and Iran, 57, 58, 60fig, 61; and Islam, 52, 54, 255; quasi-democratic state, 242; revolutionism, 51, 53, 54, 140, 242, 413n37; secularism, 53, 55, 244, 259; vs. ulama, 256; veil prohibitions, 54, 414n47

  Atatürkism/Kemalism, 53–54, 71–72, 242–45, 279, 413n37

  al-Attar, Raed, 342fig

  Austria, Hapsburg, 24, 27

  authoritarianism, 267–68, 290–91; and democracy, 5–6, 209, 211, 262, 268, 273, 281–98, 405; dictatorships, 211, 214, 215, 218; economy and, 360, 364, 373; exclusionary states, 220; inclusionary states, 223; Iraq, 175–76; and Islamists, 261, 268; “new authoritarianism,” 268; PNA, 312; and political opposition, 149, 262; populist, 219, 223; ruling bargain and, 273–74, 280–81; South America, 217, 273, 281, 296; sultanistic states, 229–30, 283; transformative, 218. See also monarchies; repression, state; statism

  authority. See central authority

  axis of evil, 190, 201

  aʿyan, 31, 310

  Ayyubids, 21

  Azerbaijan, 21–22, 110, 143

  Aziz, Tariq, 173

  al-Azm, al-Sadiq, 122

  Baaklini, Abdo, 285–86

  Babylonians, 9, 10

  Badran, Shamseddin, 122

  Baghdad, 12; Abbasids, 19, 20; Baghdad Pact (1955), 110; British capture, 28; railways, 37–38; Saddam’s statue toppled, 202fig, 205; Saljuqs, 20. See also Saddam Hussein

  Bahrain: Al Haq, 272; Al-Wefaq Party, 272; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 239, 267, 275, 291, 295; conspiracy theories, 274; al-Khalifa monarchy, 238, 272; political opposition, 253; Shiʿites, 272, 295; sultanistic state, 214, 216, 233, 234, 235, 238–39; Sunnis, 272

  Bakhtiar, Shapour, 153

  Bakhtiaris, Iran, 57

  al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan, 174, 437n26

  Balfour, Lord Arthur James, 42–43, 77

  Balfour Declaration (1917), 37, 39, 41, 42–43, 44

  Balkans, Ottomans, 22, 23

  Baluchis, Sunni, 29

  Bani-Sadr, Abol Hassan, 158, 179, 428n55

  Ban Ki-moon, 342–43

  banking: IMF, 243, 283, 356, 367; Iran, 352; regionalization and, 381; Turkey, 55; Zionist, 75. See also loans; World Bank

  al-Banna, Hassan, 255

  Barak, Ehud, 330–36

  baraka, 101, 421n84

  Bar-Lev Line, 129, 131, 134–35

  Barnett, Michael, 192

  al-Bashir, Umar Hasan, 220, 258

  Basij, Iran, 161, 166–67, 179

  Baʿth party: Iraq
, 110, 116, 173–77, 189, 206, 219, 226, 251, 438n45; secular, 254; Syria, 109, 112–13, 116, 173–74, 218, 219, 251

  Bazargan, Mehdi, 151–52, 156–57, 158

  bedouins, 11, 63, 236, 306, 369. See also nomadic tribes

  Begin, Menachem, 134, 326

  Beirut: Arafat headquarters, 125; University of St. Joseph, 38

  Ben Ali, Zein el-Abidine: and Al-Nahda, 222, 259, 282, 437n32; brought down, 267, 292, 387; economic and political liberalization, 219; exclusionary, 215–16; “the Family,” 270; “insulting dictatorship,” 269; and military, 220, 292; opposition, 217, 291, 292; portraits everywhere, 269, 437n36; security state, 271

  Ben Bella, Ahmed, 100, 114

  Ben-Gurion, David, 73, 78fig, 135; haskala, 417n14; offices, 246; Israel: Personal History, 77; speaking of Palestinians/Arabs, 418n30

  Benjadid, Chadli, 219

  Berbers, Maghreb, 2, 48, 101

  beylik, 7, 99, 104, 105

  Bible, Eretz Israel promised in, 74, 301

  Bill, James, 276

  bin Laden, Osama, 196, 199–200; “Afghan Arab,” 200; Al-Jazeera, 189fig; vs. U.S. patronage, 260. See also Al-Qaeda/bin Laden

  birth control, 389–93, 464n10

  birth rates, 389, 392table, 394–96, 425n3

  Blix, Hans, 204

  bombings: Cairo suburbs by Israelis, 128; car, 208fig, 315, 324, 454n74; Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), 173, 179, 180; Irgun, 80; Oklahoma City (1995), 195; Port Said by British, 96; Second Gulf War, 185–86, 187; September 11, 2001, 172, 190, 194–96, 200–204, 261; U.S. targets abroad, 195, 200; Yemen presidential palace, 296. See also suicide bombings

  border conflicts: colonial boundary-drawing, 36, 39–40, 43, 44, 50; Morocco-Algeria, 116; Syria-Israel, 117; Turkey-Syria, 111, 112; and water sources, 402. See also Iran-Iraq War; Palestinian-Israeli conflict

  Bouazizi, Mohammed, 267, 292

  Boumedienne, Houari, 100, 219

  Bourguiba, Habib, 39, 100, 105–6, 114, 116–17, 215, 219

  Bourguibaism, secular, 254

  Bouteflika, Abdelaziz, 220, 222, 270, 271, 282

  Brazil, democratization, 281

  Britain: and Arabian peninsula, 3, 38–40, 63, 65–66, 114, 232, 238; Arab Revolt vs. (1936–39), 80, 85, 88–89, 302; Balfour Declaration (1917), 37, 39, 41, 42–43, 44; Churchill, 41, 46, 412–13n24; colonialism, 2–3, 8, 13, 28, 32, 36–51, 45map, 56, 65–66, 218, 387; diplomatic objectives in Middle East, 36–37, 39, 44; diplomatic retreat from Middle East, 110; and Egypt, 3, 38, 39, 46–47, 50, 51, 65–66, 91–96, 218, 348, 412n7; Hussein-McMahon Correspondence/Damascus Protocol, 37, 39, 40; and India, 36, 39, 48, 413n28; and Iran, 31, 32, 36, 57, 61, 142–45, 348; and Iraq, 3, 39–45, 50, 56, 63, 65–66, 188, 204–5, 207fig; Ottomans and, 24, 28, 37, 62, 63; and Palestine, 37, 38, 44–46, 50, 65–66, 79–80, 87–89; Second Gulf War, 185; and Suez Canal, 36–38, 39, 46–47, 110, 413n28; Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 38–41, 41map, 43, 44, 412n19; and Transjordan, 37, 39–45, 50, 65, 413n27; World War II supply route, 381

  Brumberg, Daniel, 277

  BʾTselem, 321, 452n54

  Bulliet, Richard, 14

  bureaucracies, state, 59, 217–19, 224, 232, 234, 362, 365, 371, 385

  Bush, George H., 184, 191, 197, 201–2

  Bush, George W., 190, 195, 200–205, 336–37, 342, 433n61

  Bush Doctrine, 200–201, 433n72

  business: associations, 253, 284; family-run, 365–66; military ventures, 221, 270; state leaders, 269–70, 271, 277–78. See also capitalism; economic development; economic sectors; entrepreneurs; trade

  Buyid family, 20

  Byzantine Empire, 10, 17–18, 21, 22, 407n2

  Byzantium, 10

  Cairo: air pollution, 397; Cairo University, 91, 174, 257–58; City of the Dead, 365; demonstrations (1979), 134; Fatimid, 20–21; Israeli bombing of suburbs, 128; population growth problems, 396; power shifts, 12, 387; Tahrir Square protests (2011), 5, 292, 293fig; UAR capital, 112

  calendar, Islamic, 15

  caliphates, 18–19, 29, 33–35, 62; Abbasid, 19–23; high, 19–23; Islamic fundamentalists and, 260; nationalist attachment to, 85; Turkey, 20, 22, 28, 52, 56; Umayyad, 19–22

  Camp David Accord (1978), Israel-Egypt, 125, 134, 197, 325–27, 333, 345, 455n83

  Camp David II (2000), 331–34, 336–37, 344

  canals, 12, 19, 33. See also Suez Canal

  capitalism: global, 374–86; print, 69, 87; security state, 271; semiformal and informal sectors, 363–64, 370; state, 349–50. See also corporations; foreign capital

  Caradon, Lord, 125

  cars. See motor vehicles

  Carter, Jimmy, 134, 150, 157–60, 197, 326

  Casey, William, 160

  casualties: French-Algerian conflict, 103; Iran-Iraq War, 171, 179, 181; Israeli from intifada, 323; Kurds massacred, 188; Operation Iron Cast, 339; Operation Pillars of Defense, 341; Palestinian suicide bombings, 454n74; Second Gulf War, 185, 186; Six-Day War, 121, 422n35; Syrian civil war, 296, 447n124; U.S. invasion of Iraq, 206, 435n85

  censorship, of political opposition, 59, 273, 286

  central authority, 33; caliphates, 12, 18, 19, 20, 22, 62; Iran and, 56, 57, 142; Iraq after U.S. invasion, 206; Lebanon, 249–50; Maghreb and, 47, 48; Meccan lack of, 14; Ottoman lack of, 13, 47, 48, 62; Safavid lack of, 30; sultanistic states, 229–32; urban, 11–12, 13. See also dictatorships; leaders; legitimacy, state; monarchies; political elites; states

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): and Afghan-Soviet conflict, 199, 200; and Iran, 110, 145–46, 157–58, 160, 426n11; PNA cooperation with, 331; Syrian government overthrow, 111

  Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), 111

  charismatic leadership, 93–97, 101, 114, 215, 224–27, 254

  chemical weapons: Iraq, 180–81, 185, 188–89, 203, 204. See also weapons of mass destruction

  Cheney, Dick, 204

  children: gender and fertility rates, 389, 395–96; infant mortality rates, 388–89; Palestinian wartime, 312, 335, 341fig, 450n42, 452n54; population, 393; punishment from security forces, 462n69; street, 365, 462n69; ties between, 366. See also youth

  Chile, democratization, 281

  China: Islamic expansion into, 18; revolution, 139, 140

  Christians, 10, 19, 34; Byzantine, 10, 17–18, 21, 22, 407n2; Copts, 10, 134; Crusaders, 21, 34; French diplomatic objectives with, 37, 38, 44; Greek Catholic, 247; Israel population of, 303; Italian Catholic, 50; Jacobite, 10; Jesuits, 38; Maronite, 38, 44, 247–49; Nestorian, 10; Turkish nationalism and, 27. See also Arab Christians

  Churchill, Winston, 41, 46, 412–13n24

  CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency

  cities. See urban areas

  civilizations: cradles of, 12, 33; Khatami’s dialogue of, 165; shah’s Great Civilization, 146

  civil service/public employment: corporatism and, 277; recession and, 261; rentierism and, 385; statism and, 351–52; sultanistic states, 218, 231, 232, 234; Turkey, 54

  civil society: and democratization, 241, 243, 281–85; embryonic death, 284–85; Iran, 165; Iraq, 189; repressive authoritarianism side by side with, 271; Turkey, 243

  civil society organizations, 265–66, 281, 284, 296, 308

  civil wars, 221–22; Algeria (1990s), 191, 220–22, 282, 368, 382; Iraq, 206; Islamic (656–61 and 680–92), 18; Jordan (1970), 230; Lebanon (1975–91), 13, 138, 240, 248–49, 288, 327; Libya, 294, 295; Palestinian PNA vs. Hamas, 308–9, 339; Sudan, 191, 220–22; Syria (2011–13), 5, 217, 294, 296, 297fig, 447n124; U.S. (1860–63), 240; Yemen, 109, 114–16, 294

  classes: entrepreneurial, 261, 277, 369–72; lumpenproletariat, 365–68; and rentierism, 360, 362. See also economic sectors; middle class; political elites; socioeconomic levels; upper classes

  clerics, 10. See also imams; ulama

  clientelism. See patronage

  Clinton, Bill: and Iran, 165, 191; and Iraq, 434n80; Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 191, 329fig, 331, 332, 334, 336, 342

  clothing, laws about, 54, 59–60, 161, 414n47


  CO2 emissions, 397, 398table

  Cohen, Elie, 119

  Cold War, 110–11, 146, 170, 193, 197, 207

  colonialism: Israeli-Occupied Territories, 320; Ottoman, 33–34, 387; Russian, 32; state formation under, 215, 232; traditionalist anticolonialist nationalism, 101, 102. See also European colonialism

  colons, Maghreb, 48–50, 99, 101, 102–3, 108

  Committee for Union and Progress (CUP), 27, 51, 54, 417n9

  communists: Eastern Europe, 217, 230; Eisenhower Doctrine and, 110–11; Iran and, 32, 145, 148, 150; Maoist Fedayeen-e Khalq, 151; Nasser and, 95; Russian revolution (1917), 28, 41, 43; Syrian party, 113. See also Soviets

  community: Islamic emphasis on, 2, 7, 11, 17; Jewish Yishuv, 76–77, 79–80; nationhood, 69; nomadic tribes, 11–12, 33, 63; village, 11–13, 33, 63. See also tribalism; umma; urban areas

  Compact of Medina, 15–16

  concessions: repression combined with, 281. See also liberalization

  confederations, 13, 40, 57, 72, 114. See also international organizations

  conflicts, 3; conspiracy theories, 161, 183–84, 188, 274, 275; Medina Jews, 16; praetorian polities, 278; water scarcity and, 400–404. See also border conflicts; casualties; coups; Palestinian-Israeli conflict; revolutions; street demonstrations; terrorism; violence; wars

  consensus: ijma, 16; state-society, 273

  consensus/consociational democracy, 248, 250, 288, 289

  conspiracy theories, 161, 183–84, 188, 274, 275

  Constantine the Great, 10

  Constantinople, 10, 11, 21, 22

  Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), Tunisia, 271

  Constitutional Revolution, Iran (1905–11), 31–33, 56, 61, 142–43, 284

  constitutions: Algeria, 221; democratization and, 282; earliest written (Middle East), 15, 16; Egypt, 5, 93, 106, 268–69; exclusionary states, 221; Iran, 31, 32, 144, 158, 163–64, 224, 282; Iraq, 183–84, 224; Israel and, 247, 307; Jordan, 237; Lebanon, 248; Libya, 5; Morocco, 237, 286; Ottoman, 27–28; presidential monarchies, 268–69, 270; quasi-democratic states, 239, 242, 243; Tunisia, 5, 106; Turkey, 27–28, 242, 243, 411n61; U.S., 240

  contraceptives, 389–93, 464n10

  Copts, Egypt, 10, 134

  corporations: multinational, 261, 350; state-owned, 218; tribal, 233. See also confederations

  corporatism: Egypt, 134; functional groups, 277; monarchies, 230, 233–34, 277; “populist-corporatist,” 457n7; rentierism and, 361; ruling bargain, 273, 277; Turkey, 55, 242–43, 278