Gharbzadegi/Weststruckness (Al-e Ahmad), 151
globalization, 212, 374–86; deglobalization (1920s and 1930s), 348; high-technology exports and, 375–77, 463n85
Glubb Pasha, 46
GNP (gross national product), 352, 353fig, 359
Golan Heights: Israeli annexation, 126; 1973 war, 129, 131, 138, 190; repopulation of Jews, 317, 320; Six-Day War, 119–21, 126; water, 402
government. See civil service/public employment; institutions; politics; states
Great Civilization, shah of Iran, 146
Great Depression (1930s), 348
Great War (1914–18), 36, 38, 39, 44, 50, 67; economic development and, 348; empire form and, 27; Iran, 32, 56, 61; mandates after, 38, 44, 45map, 50; and Ottoman Empire, 13, 28, 35, 44, 50; Suez Canal, 46
Greece, Turks, 53
Greek Orthodox, Lebanon, 247, 248
Greeks, in Turkey, 28, 53
green line, 337
Green Movement, Iran, 167, 405
Green Party, Iran, 399
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 199, 381, 394table, 401
Gulf Wars, 170–209, 224, 362. See also Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003); Second Gulf War (1990–91)
Gush Emunium, 321
Hadi, Abd Rabbuh Mansur, 296
Haganah, Zionist military, 75–76, 79–80, 79fig, 82–83, 88
Hague Regulations (1907), 318
Haiti, Duvalier’s, 217
Hama, Syrian massacre (1982), 223
Hamad, Sheikh (b. 1950), 238
Hamas, 260, 308, 314–16, 335; Gaza Strip controlled by, 339–41; Israeli air strikes on, 339–41, 342fig; leaders, 339–41, 342fig, 343fig; Operation Pillars of Defense vs., 339–41; PNA conflicts with, 308–9, 313–14, 315, 334, 339, 451n48; al-Qassam Brigade, 451n48; rejectionism, 315, 345; suicide bombings, 335, 337, 451n48, 454n74; women marching for, 336fig
Hanafi, Hasan (b. 1935), 257
Haniya, Ismail, 343fig
Hapsburg Austria, 24, 27
Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount, 333–35
harem, 26fig
Harik, Iliya, 277
Hariri, Rafiq, 288, 289
Hashemites, 39–42, 63, 71, 412n9. See also Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif; Jordan’s Hashemite ruling family
haskala, 74, 417n14
Hassan, Jordan Crown Prince, 236, 239
Hassan II (b. 1929), Moroccan king, 157, 230, 237–38, 256, 286, 287
Hassanian democracy, Morocco, 237–38, 286
Hawi, Khalil (1920–82), 257
Hebron, 321, 322fig
Hedayat, Sadeq (1903–51), 257
Heidari, Buland (1926–96), 257
Helmy, Taher, 271
Henry, Clement Moore, 100–101
Herzl, Theodor, 73–75, 78–79, 416n6
Hezbollah, 157, 249, 260, 289
hijackings, 124
Hijaz, 412n9; Arab Revolt, 28, 39–40, 62; caravan trade, 9; cities, 12, 14; Kingdom, 40, 42, 50, 51, 62–66, 71; nationalism, 66, 71, 417n9; Ottomans, 23, 28, 39, 46, 62. See also Mecca; Medina
hijrah, 15, 409n21
Histadrut labor federation, 75–76, 79
history, 2–5, 9–209, 405; “new historians,” 82, 419n39; as process, 4, 36. See also Middle East
Hitler, A., 301, 330
Hittites, 9
hostage crisis (1979–81), Iran, 155, 157–61, 171, 173, 176, 197, 428nn50,51
housing: demolitions of Palestinian, 79–80, 123, 198, 317–19, 321, 324, 418n35, 453–54nn60,64; living in the streets, 365, 462n69; population growth and, 393–94. See also settlements
Hoveida, Amir Abbas, 147–48, 149
human rights abuses: Country Report on Human Rights Practices (U.S. State Department), 318; by French in Algeria, 49, 102–3; Iraqi, 189; Israelis toward Palestinians, 318–19, 322fig, 339, 451–52n54; toward Kurds, 188, 244–45, 431n42; Morocco, 282; against the poor, 368–69; Saudi, 198; security state organizations, 271; sultanistic states, 215; U.S. foreign policy and, 150, 198, 318. See also massacres; terrorism
Hungary: democratization, 281; Hapsburgs, 23; migration to Israel from, 303; new state, 70
Huntington, Samuel, 278
Hussein (Jordan king): brother Hassan replaced with son Abdullah, 236–39; cousin Faisal, 230; death (February 1999), 237, 238; and 1973 war, 132; and Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 123, 125, 129, 136, 327; and Second Gulf War, 186, 191; with West vs. communists, 95
Hussein, Saddam. See Saddam Hussein
Hussein, Uday, 276
Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif, 37, 40, 42, 71, 412n19; son Abdullah, 42, 46, 71, 84, 412n14; son Faisal, 42, 44, 71, 230
al-Husseini, Hajj Amin, 302
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence/Damascus Protocol, 37, 39, 40
Hypocrites (Munafiqun/Doubters), 16
Ibn Saud (Abdel Aziz ibn Abd el-Rahman), 62–66, 236, 415n77
Ibrahim, Anwar, 258
identities: cultural, 13; “the Other,” 6, 13, 302, 304. See also ethnicity; languages; national identities; religions
IDF. See Israeli Defense Forces
ijma, 16
Ikhwan Muslimeen. See Muslim Brotherhood
Ilkhanids, 21–22
imams, 29, 114, 153. See also Khomeini, Ayatollah Rouhollah
IMF (International Monetary Fund), 243, 283, 356, 367
imports, 377, 464n16; food, 394–95
import-substitution industrialization (ISI) policies, 347–48, 464n16
inclusionary states, 213–18, 223–29, 263, 273, 367–68, 437n26
independence, 8, 50, 53, 67, 69–70, 96; of associations, 284–85; Bahrain, 238; Egypt (1921), 46–47, 50; Gulf states (1880s–1971), 232; Hussein-McMahon Correspondence and, 40; Jordan, 50, 235, 412n14; Lebanon (1943), 240, 247–48; in Maghreb, 38, 47–50, 98–107, 218, 237; Sudan (1954), 96; Turkey (1923), 28, 53, 56, 69–70; Yemen, 114. See also state formation
Independence (Istiqlal) party, Morocco, 101, 237, 238, 250
India: British and, 36, 39, 48, 413n28; Germany and, 61; workers from, 393
Indonesia: Islamism, 258; Non-Aligned Summit (1955), 92–93, 95
industrialization, 347–48, 387, 388; and environmental pollution, 396–98, 400–401, 464n20; high-technology exports and, 377, 463n85; import-substitution industrialization (ISI) policies, 347–48, 464n16; and nationhood, 69; population and, 394; public employment, 351; rentierism and, 362; statist, 51, 55, 350–53, 355, 362; water scarcity and, 400
infant mortality rates, 388–89
infitah (open door policy), 134, 137, 219, 284, 351, 369, 372
Inönü, Ismet, 55
institutions: exclusionary states, 218; Islamic Iran’s bonyad, 225–26; and national identities, 308, 313–15; partial democracies, 240; political opposition, 250–53; quasi-democracies, 239–41, 248; sultanistic states, 229, 233, 234, 235, 237–39; Zionist statelike, 75, 418n21. See also bureaucracies; constitutions; military; parliaments; police
intellectuals: Arab nationalist, 87, 90, 107; associations, 284; Egypt, 90, 126, 256, 257–58; Iran, 146, 151–52, 165, 257, 258, 286; Islamist, 255, 257, 262–63; Israel, 305, 346; Morocco, 101; political opposition, 151–52, 255, 257, 262–63, 273, 286; secular, 257, 262, 263, 284; Syria, 90, 106, 174, 257; Tunisia, 104–5; unofficial nationalism, 274–75. See also writers
intelligence agencies: Irani SAVAK, 145–52; mukhaberat, 95, 217, 223, 226, 231, 279–80; Pakistani ISI, 199–200. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
international allies: trading partners, 377; Turkey-Israel, 194; U.S.-led coalition in Second Gulf War, 171, 184, 186, 190, 208, 327, 431n36. See also confederations; international organizations; Pan-Arabism; summits; treaties
International Association of Jurists, 150
International Center for Transitional Justice, 286–87
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 243, 283, 356, 367
international organizations: Amnesty International, 150, 319, 368; Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 199, 381, 394table, 401; International A
ssociation of Jurists, 150; League of Nations, 44, 46, 51; NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 285, 287, 399; OPEC, 137, 191. See also confederations; United Nations
international relations. See foreign policy
Internet, 198, 266–67, 284; social media, 284, 292
interventionism: economic, 457n7. See also rentierism; statism
intifadas, 323–36, 345, 451n48; Al-Aqsa, 193, 313, 316, 317, 323, 332–36, 452n54; children, 312, 335, 450n42, 452n54; first (1987–93), 86, 302, 311–17, 323–31, 450n42; and living conditions in Occupied Territories, 307, 312–13, 323, 451n50; and Palestinian national identity, 86, 86table, 302, 308, 312–13; peace process and, 86, 308, 313, 327–31; PLO and, 86, 302, 311–15, 323, 327, 329–30; and religious identity, 302; Second Gulf War and, 186, 327; Sharon and, 336
investment. See foreign capital; loans
Iran, 1, 51, 56–62, 137, 141–84, 403; Ahmadinejad, 165–68, 224–26, 225fig; airliner shot down (1988), 181, 430n27; associations, 32, 284, 287; axis of evil, 201; Baghdad Pact, 110; Basij, 161, 166–67, 179; British and, 31, 32, 36, 50, 57, 61, 142–45, 348; Buyid family, 20; censorship, 59, 286; CIA and, 110, 145–46, 157–58, 160, 426n11; clerics/ulama, 30, 31, 57–58, 60, 145, 152–66, 180, 190, 257, 284; Clinton and, 165, 191; Constitutional Revolution (1905–11), 31–33, 56, 61, 142–43, 284; constitutions, 31, 32, 144, 158, 163–64, 224, 282; contraceptives, 464n10; coup (1921), 32–33, 56, 57; coup (1953), 110, 145, 150; crime punishments, 368; cultural values, 161–62, 165, 228, 279; and democracy, 142, 155, 239, 262, 280, 285–90; economic development, 58–61, 141–49, 162–66, 169, 181, 182, 348–84; economic reforms, 356–57; environmental pollution, 397–99; exclusionary state, 217, 227, 228, 262, 263; fertility rates, 425n3; and Germany, 61, 142, 415n74; globalization and, 382; Green Movement, 167, 405; Hezbollah ally, 289; hostage crisis (1979–81), 155, 157–61, 171, 173, 176, 197, 428nn50,51; Ilkhanids, 21–22; inclusionary state, 215–17, 223–29, 262, 263, 367–68; intellectuals, 146, 151–52, 165, 257, 258, 286; Iran-Contra Affair, 161, 428n57; Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), 178, 224–26, 368; Kurds, 2, 143, 176; Land Reform Law (1962), 146–47, 151; Leader/velayat faqih, 158–68, 224, 426n22; local notables (aʿyan), 31; military, 58–59, 146, 153, 161–62, 166–67, 175, 178, 180, 224–26, 368; modernism, 57–61, 66, 142, 147, 152, 156, 235; monarchy, 10, 31–33, 57–59, 141–55; Mongols, 21; Mujahedeen guerrillas, 151, 161; Musaddiq, 144–47, 150, 426nn11,12,16; and nationalism, 57, 71–72, 144, 146, 179, 274, 383; nuclear program, 167, 168fig; oil, 137, 141, 144, 146, 148, 149, 162, 164, 190, 359, 362; opposition politics, 59, 141–68, 251, 254–57, 285–86; Ottomans and, 2, 23; Persians, 2, 18, 20, 29, 175; political parties, 58, 148–61, 251, 399; population, 425n3; Qajars, 28, 30–33, 56–57; Russians/Soviets and, 31, 32, 55, 57, 61, 110, 142–43, 150, 168fig, 348; Safavids, 22, 23, 28–30, 411n65; Sassanids, 10, 17, 18; SAVAK, 145–52; secular civil code, 59–60, 415n66; semiformal economy, 372; Shiʿites, 23, 29, 30, 57–58, 152–53, 190, 275; state-led social change, 58, 285–90, 384; statism, 49, 351, 384; Syria and, 190; tribalism, 57, 143; Turkey and, 57, 60fig, 61, 244; urban areas, 11, 12, 21, 29, 30, 408n14; U.S. continuing tensions with, 167, 404; U.S. invasion of Iraq and, 203, 403; veil prohibitions, 60, 414n47; water, 400, 401; White Revolution (Inqilab-e Sefeed)/Revolution of the Shah and the People (1963), 146–48, 152; Zoroastrianism, 10. See also Iranian republicanism; Iranian revolution (1978–79); Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); Khomeini, Ayatollah Rouhollah; Majles (Iranian parliament); Pahlavi state; Tehran
Iran-Contra Affair, 161, 428n57
Iranian republicanism, 56–57, 145, 155–69; First Republic (1979–88), 155–63, 173, 216, 372; Second Republic (1989–97), 141, 155–56, 161–63, 167, 183, 191, 214, 216, 224, 281; Third Republic, 141, 155–56, 164–65, 167–68, 214, 253
Iranian revolution (1978–79), 4, 32, 36, 138, 139–69, 217, 255, 273; Arab world and, 171, 172; conspiracy theories and, 274; economy and, 141–49, 352, 364; First Republic (1979–88), 155–63, 173, 216, 372; Iran-Iraq War and, 141, 155, 156, 159–63, 166, 169, 176, 178, 180; Islam sweeping across Middle East after, 314; Leader/velayat faqih rising out of, 158, 161, 163, 168, 426n22; Revolutionary Committees (Komiteh), 156–57; Revolutionary Council, 158; Revolutionary Courts, 156–57; shah and, 149–55, 157–58; spontaneous revolution, 141, 151; theology of discontent, 152
Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), 4, 13, 167, 171–83, 282, 327; Ahmadinejad and, 166; Arab unity, 171, 172, 190, 208–9; attrition strategy of Iran, 180; casualties, 171, 179, 181; cease-fire attempts, 178, 180, 181; economics, 180–82, 184; human wave attacks, 179; “al-Hussein” missiles, 227; Iranian revolution and, 141, 155, 156, 159–63, 166, 169, 176, 178, 180; Iraqi military and, 179–82, 184, 185, 227; Israel and, 161, 179; Khatami and, 164; long-term effect, 404; PLO and, 392; POWs, 181; reconstruction after, 163, 168–69, 181–82, 225; Saddam’s Qadisiyya, 175, 227; Second Gulf War planned after, 172, 182; three phases, 177–80; UN cease-fire resolution, 178, 181, 431n37
Iraq, 1, 4, 40, 170–209, 404; Al-Maliki government, 207; Arab nationalism, 72, 113–14, 171–75, 177, 191–92, 208–9; Arab Revolt, 39; axis of evil, 190, 201; Baghdad Pact, 110; Baʿthists, 110, 116, 173–77, 189, 206, 219, 226, 251, 438n45; birth of, 39; Britain and, 3, 39–45, 50, 56, 63, 65–66, 188, 204–5, 207fig; coup (1958), 42, 110, 113–14, 174, 218; economic development, 180–84, 351, 361, 364; economic sanctions on, 199, 382; elections, 184, 271–72; environmental pollution, 399; exclusionary/mukhaberat state, 217, 226, 280; Faisal, 40, 42, 71, 230; Heidari, 257; inclusionary state, 215, 223–27, 367–68, 437n26; and Israel, 118, 131–32, 179, 184, 186, 190; Khomeini exile in, 147, 153; Kurds, 2, 51, 180, 188, 208, 431nn41,42; Mosul, 51; National Assembly, 184, 224; nationalism, 44, 179, 274; Nestorian Church, 10; oil, 50, 180, 202–4, 359; postinvasion, 406; rentierism, 359, 361; and Sadat initiative, 455n83; Sassanids, 10, 11, 17; separatists, 266; Shiʿites, 44, 147, 173, 179, 187fig, 188, 206, 208, 431n41; statism, 351; urban populations, 12, 408n14; U.S. occupation, 189, 201–7, 337, 342, 406; U.S. withdrawal (2009–11), 5, 207; water, 402; and weapons of mass destruction, 171, 180–81, 185, 188, 203, 204; women and war, 72fig, 175fig, 187fig, 207fig, 208fig; Zoroastrianism, 10. See also Baghdad; Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); Mesopotamia; Saddam Hussein; Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003); Second Gulf War (1990–91)
IraqBodyCount.org, 206, 435n85
Iraqi military: Baʿth party and, 226; economic ventures, 221; “highway of death,” 183fig, 187–88; Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), 179–82, 184, 185, 227; Popular Militia, 174, 226, 368; population, 178, 226; Saddam’s rank, 174, 429n7, 437n26; spending on, 226; women, 72fig
Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization), 79, 80
Iriani, Said Abdel Rahman, 422n22
irrigation, 12, 33, 400
ISI, Pakistani intelligence, 199–200
Islah (Reform) Party, Yemen, 251
Islam, 2, 7, 9, 13–21, 33; calendar, 15; Crusaders vs., 21, 34; dawn of, 3–4, 7, 9, 10, 14–19; dress code, 54, 60, 161, 414n47; fasting, 2, 17, 105, 131; five pillars, 17; Iranian republics and, 155, 156, 162; Islamization, 253–54, 382; jihad, 39, 260, 315, 441–42n114; Kharajis, 18, 237; literalist interpretation of, 260; mawali, 19, 409n35; Mecca controversy over three pagan goddesses, 407n2; modernism and, 54, 66, 156, 255–57; nationalism and, 85, 107, 194, 257, 302, 313–14; official, 256; Pahlavi state and, 57–59, 60, 65, 142, 147, 255; Palestinians and, 302, 313–14; political opposition based on, 151, 152–53, 155, 253–64; prayer, 2, 17; Sanusi and, 50; Saudi king as Custodian of Islam’s Two Holy Mosques, 282, 439n77; Saudis using, 235, 255, 282; Six-Day War and, 122; as submission, 2, 14; tithing, 17; Turkey and, 52, 54, 56, 243–44, 255; Wahhabi, 62–63. See also caliphates; Islamism; jurisprudence, Islamic; Muslims; Prophet Muhammad; Quran; umma
Islamic Action Front (IAF), Jordan, 251, 252, 259
Islamic Jihad, Palestinian, 260, 313–15, 337, 345
Islamic Liberation Party, Jordan, 260
Islamic Republic Party (IRP), Iran, 158, 159, 161
Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), Iran, 178, 224–26, 368
Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), Algeria, 221–22, 251, 260, 280, 282
Islamic states, 15–17, 19
Islamic Tendency Movement, Tunisia, 258
Islamism, 33, 194, 253–68, 279, 313; in associations, 285; fundamentalist, 194–96, 199–201, 253–64, 274; intellectuals, 255, 257, 262–63; of political elites, 156–63, 243–44, 257–58, 261, 262; political parties, 251, 258–60, 262, 282–83; populist, 255, 259, 262; repression and, 262, 268, 272; terrorist, 194–96, 261, 268; ulama, 156–63, 255–58, 262–63. See also Al-Qaeda/bin Laden; Hamas
Islamization, 253–54, 382
Ismail (d. 1524), 23, 29–30
Israel, 404; Barak, 330–36; Begin, 134, 326; birth of (1948), 35, 39, 67, 73–84, 299; Cold War concerns, 111; Dayan, 119; divisions among communities in, 302–4; elections, 245, 336–37, 440n91; GDP, 352; and globalization, 383; identity crisis, 305, 306–7; and Iran-Iraq War, 161, 179; Iraq and, 118, 131–32, 179, 184, 186, 190; Jewish ethnicity, 2, 73–84, 241, 302–6; Knesset, 126, 245, 305, 326, 332, 334, 440n91; leaders, 43, 73–78, 117–19, 128–35, 193, 247, 324–38; Meir, 77, 128, 129, 135; Mizrachim, 303–6; national identity, 106, 302–7, 317, 448–49n15; nationalism, 73, 75–84, 98; Netanyahu, 193, 204, 330–31, 341; Palestinian citizens of, 2, 242, 309; Palestinian population in, 309; Palestinians denying existence of, 106; Peres, 135, 193, 324–25, 327, 330, 337; quasi-democratic state, 215, 240–42, 245–47, 263; Rabin, 135, 324–25, 328–31, 329fig; regional dominance, 193, 299; religions (population), 303; rentier economy, 359; Second Gulf War, 186, 194; Sharon, 131, 330–39; “transfer” of Palestinians from, 450n36; Turkey alliances, 194; U.S. aid to, 131, 197–98, 432n60, 433n61; U.S. invasion of Iraq and, 203; water, 117, 319, 334, 402, 403. See also Arab-Israeli ethnicity; Arab-Israeli wars; Israeli Defense Forces (IDF); Israeli-Occupied Territories; Israeli political parties; Jerusalem; Palestinian-Israeli conflict; peace process, Arab-Israeli
Israeli Defense Forces (IDF), 80; and Al-Aqsa intifada, 335, 336, 452n54; Arab Israeli service in, 246; Ashkenazim control, 305; vs. Hamas, 339; Lebanon invasion, 133–34, 186, 249, 289, 327, 334; Lebanon withdrawal, 327, 331, 403; 1973 war, 132–33, 247; Operation Pillars of Defense, 339–41; Palestinian homes shot at, 319; privileged political position, 241, 246–47, 263; Sharon “Disengagement Plan,” 338–39; Six-Day War, 119–21, 121fig, 247, 422n35; suicide bombing retaliations, 335, 337; U.S. aid, 131; War of Attrition, 123, 128; war crimes, 339, 451–52n54. See also Arab-Israeli wars
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