Saddam Hussein, 172–90, 205fig, 192, 199, 217, 271–72; and Baʿthists, 173–75, 177, 188, 438n45; capture/trial/execution, 205fig, 206; conspiracy theories, 183–84, 188; inclusionary state, 214, 223–27, 367–68, 437n26; Iran-Iraq War, 172–82, 208, 227, 282; military rank, 174, 429n7, 437n26; and Nasser, 137–38, 173, 174, 177, 209; Pan-Arabism, 137–38, 193; patrimonialism, 276; personal politics, 177, 223–27, 269, 276, 429n9; Project for the New American Century vs., 434n80; Qadisiyya, 175, 227; “republic of fear,” 189–90, 206, 226; Second Gulf War and, 182–89, 208, 282; statue toppled, 202fig, 205. See also Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003)
Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003), 4–5, 189, 201–9, 226, 337; authoritarian hard-liners strengthened by, 297; British occupation forces, 207fig; casualties, 206, 435n85; Iranis and, 203, 403; Iraqi state’s classification before, 226; Saddam statue toppled, 202fig, 205; unofficial nationalism and, 276; U.S. occupation after, 189, 201–7, 337; U.S. withdrawal (2009–11), 5, 207
Sadr, Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir, 173
Safavids, 22, 23, 28–30, 33, 411n65
Said, Ali Ahmad (Adonis), 257, 450n37
Said, Edward, 330, 346, 418n35
Said, Şeyh, 53
Saladin, 21
Salafists, 259–60
Salal, Abdullah, 422n22
Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 290, 296
Salehi, Ali Akbar, 168fig
Saljuqs, 20, 21–22
Sanaa, Yemen, 12
San Remo Conference (April 1920), 39, 44
al-Sanusi, Muhammad, 50
Sanusi Sufi order, 50
Sassanids, 9–10, 11, 17, 18
Saud, King (son of Ibn Saud), 64, 233
Saud clan, 39, 42, 51, 62–66, 233–34; bin Laden and, 200, 260; clergy incorporated by, 256; corporatism, 233–34, 277; Crown Prince Faisal, 65, 233; Ibn Saud (Abdel Aziz ibn Abd el-Rahman), 62–66, 236, 415n77; King Abdullah, 343; king as Custodian of Islam’s Two Holy Mosques, 282, 439n77; King Fahd, 271, 439n77; King Saud (son of Ibn Saud), 64, 233; population, 233–34; princely privileges, 233–34, 439n74; Prince Talal, 233; U.S. and, 64, 198, 199, 260
Saudi Arabia, 62–66; agriculture, 6, 63, 354; Arab-Israeli wars, 118; and Arab nationalism, 192; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 275, 295; Aramco, 63–64, 416n83; Ben Ali exile, 292, 387; bin Laden and, 200, 201, 260; birth of, 39, 51, 62–66, 232; Buraydah, 12; conspiracy theories, 184, 274; corporatism, 233–34, 277; cultural niche, 279; domestic politics, 65, 250, 271; economic development, 63–64, 352, 354, 385; executions, 369; GDP, 352; globalization and, 382; Iran-Iraq War, 181–82; Islamic fundamentalists, 261; Islam used by, 234, 255, 282; Lebanon mediation by, 249; national consultative council, 271; oil, 63–64, 137, 198, 203, 352, 362, 416n83; and political opposition, 250, 255; rentierism, 459–60n45; repression, 215, 268; Riyadh, 12, 62, 63, 200; and Sadat initiative, 455n83; Second Gulf War, 184, 185, 186; sultanistic state, 214, 216, 232, 233–35; Taʾif Accord (1972), 248–49, 288–89; U.S. and, 64, 192, 198, 199, 200, 260; U.S. targets attacked in (1995 and 1996), 195, 200; and Yemeni civil war, 115, 116. See also Mecca; Medina; Saud clan
SAVAK, Iran, 145–52
science and technology, 34, 389
Second Gulf War (1990–91), 4, 172, 182–91, 194, 208–9, 406; Bush popularity during, 201–2; casualties, 185, 186; and domestic pressures for liberalization, 234; “highway of death,” 183fig, 187–88; Iraqi military, 183fig, 184–89; Kuwait invasion, 172–73, 182–91, 208, 229, 282, 327; Operation Desert Shield, 186; Operation Desert Storm, 187, 431n38; U.S.-led coalition, 171, 184, 186, 190, 208, 327, 431n36; war of miscalculations, 184; women mourning, 187fig
Second World War (1939–45), 36, 67; French defeat, 100; Iran and, 32, 61, 142–43, 348; Italian defeat, 50, 99; Jews, 51, 77, 82, 106; Nazis/Holocaust, 51, 82, 301; and trade, 348, 381
secularism, 263; intellectuals, 257, 262, 263, 284; Iran, 59–60, 415n66; nationalist, 106, 254–55, 262, 301–16, 450n37; official Islam, 257; Palestinian, 301–16, 450n37; politicization of Islam vs., 255, 261; Turkey, 53, 55, 66, 242–44, 259; Zionist, 301–12. See also modernism
security states, 265, 270–71. See also national security
Selim III (r. 1789–1807), 25
separatists, 266
Sephardim, 302–3
September 1, 2001, 172, 190, 194–96, 200–204, 261
settlements, Israeli, 307; Oslo Accords and, 329, 331–33; population, 319–20, 320table, 331–33; preferential treatment of Jews, 313, 317–22, 453–54nn55,64; road map for peace and, 337; and water scarcity, 402; West Bank, 342
Sèvres, Treaty of (August 1920), 39, 44
shahs: Qajar, 30, 31–33, 56–57; Safavid, 29. See also Pahlavi state
shantytowns, 394
sharia, 16, 54, 59, 260, 389, 415n66
Shariati, Ali (1933–77), 151, 257
Shariatmadari, Grand Ayatollah Kazem, 161
Sharon, Ariel, 131, 330–39
Shas Party, Israel, 304, 305–6
Shiʿites, 217; Bahrain, 272, 295; clergy hierarchy, 426n22; conspiracy theories about, 274; deifying certain individuals, 62–63; Hezbollah militia, 249; Iran, 23, 29, 30, 57–58, 152–53, 190, 275; Iraq, 44, 147, 173, 179, 187fig, 188, 206, 208, 431n41; Lebanon, 247, 248, 249, 274; North Africa, 20–21; partisans, 18; Safavids, 23, 29; Twelver (Imami) branch, 29. See also ulama
Shlaim, Avi, 344
Shuqairi, Ahmad, 123
Sick, Gary, 160, 428nn51,55
Sinai, 84, 138; Arab-Israeli wars, 96–97, 118–21, 123, 126–32, 190; Camp David Accord and, 125, 134, 325–27, 344; Strait of Tiran, 118, 119
Sinai I & II treaties, 133, 135
Six-Day War (1967), 36, 109, 116–31, 138, 189, 300, 324; casualties, 121, 422n35; and exclusionary state formation, 219; Israeli-captured territories, 120map; Israeli military, 119–21, 121fig, 247, 422n35; lightning blitz, 119–21; Nasser and, 85, 90, 108, 109, 116–23, 220; Palestinian nationalism phases, 85; Palestinian refugees, 121, 123, 317; radio from Egypt, 122, 123, 423n41; and secular nationalism’s decline, 254
social change, state-led: democratization, 285–90; Iran, 58, 285–90, 384; Tunisia, 105; Turkey, 54, 384. See also liberalization; modernism; social welfare programs
Social Democratic Movement Parties, Tunisia, 251
socialism: etatism vs., 457n7; exclusionary states, 219; Iranian revolutionaries, 151; Nasser’s Egypt, 95, 102; Six-Day War and, 122
social media, 284, 292
social welfare programs, 231, 265–66, 271, 362–63, 383
socioeconomic levels: military, 219, 221; Mizrachim and Ashkenazim, 303–5; Palestinian, 310–11, 317, 321–23. See also classes; economic sectors; education; employment; poverty
Somalia: separatists, 266; U.S. targets attacked in (1993), 195
Soroush, Abdolkarim (b. 1945), 257, 258
South America. See Latin America
Southeast Anatolian Development Project (GAP), Turkey, 402
Soviets: Afghanistan invasion (1979), 159, 170, 199–200; and Arab-Israeli conflicts, 117, 119, 122–23, 128–29; Cold War, 110–11, 146, 170, 197; collapse, 172, 199; Egypt aided by, 96, 122–23, 128–29; and Iran, 32, 110, 142–43, 150, 348; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; and PLO, 136; and Syria, 190; Turkey aided by, 55; World War II, 142–43, 381. See also Eastern Europe; Russians
Spain: Franco, 102; Islamic expansion into, 17–18; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 326, 327; and Morocco, 102, 237; Sephardim and, 302–3; Umayyads, 19, 20–21
Springborg, Robert, 276, 285–86
“Spring of Nations”/”Springtime of Peoples” revolutions (1848), Europe, 405
state formation, 3, 36–67, 69, 213, 218–22, 387; exclusionary states (three stages), 218–20; Iran (1920s), 38, 59–61; Israel (1948), 35, 39, 66, 73–84, 299; and rentierism, 235, 362; Saudi Arabia (1920s), 39, 51, 62–66; Turkey, 27–28, 38, 39, 51–56. See also independence; local nation builders (1920s); monarchies
states, 8, 213–64, 368; bureaucracies, 59, 217–19, 224, 232, 234,
362, 365, 371, 385; economic role, 6, 349–72; exclusionary/mukhaberat/praetorian, 213–29, 263, 278, 416n83, 435n3, 437–38nn26,36; hydraulic, 12, 13, 33; inclusionary, 213–18, 223–29, 263, 273, 367–68, 437n26; Islamic, 15–17, 19; and Islamist parties, 259–60; limited, 371; and nationhood idea, 70; Orwellian totalitarian, 226; progressive (nonaligned) and conservative (pro-Western), 110; quasi-democratic, 213–17, 239–50, 263; revolutionary, 223; security states, 265, 270–71; social welfare programs, 231, 265–66, 271, 362–63, 383; sultanistic, 213, 214, 227–28, 229–39, 263, 283; transformative, 218, 226; vs. ulama, 255–58. See also central authority; civil service/public employment; corporatism; corruption; dictatorships; Islamic states; leaders; legitimacy, state; monarchies; nationalism; nationhood; patronage; politics; rentierism; repression, state; republicanism; revolutions; state formation; state-society relations; statism; taxes; wars
state-society relations, 4, 5, 8, 33, 139, 264, 279–81; consensus, 273; exit of society from political process, 279–80; gap, 263, 265; hard-liners and soft-liners/liberalizers and, 289, 297; Iran, 143, 146–47, 273, 285–86; mukhaberat states, 221; negative equilibrium, 146, 385; negotiated revolutions, 140; negotiated transition to democracy, 268–69, 280, 285–90; parallel or alternative society, 279; praetorian polities, 278; rentierism and, 359–60, 362–63, 385; social welfare programs, 231, 265–66, 271, 362–63, 383; spontaneous revolutions, 140; statism and, 357–58; weakness in, 143, 207–8, 263, 363–64, 384; Yemen, 114. See also civil society; corporatism; democracy; domestic politics; economic development; institutions; legitimacy, state; patronage; political opposition; political parties; revolutions; riots; ruling bargain; social change, state-led
statism, 49, 134, 348, 349–57, 363–64; Algeria, 219, 351; and democratization, 274; economic development, 49, 51, 134, 274, 348, 349–57, 362, 363–64, 381–82; Egypt, 218, 351; rentierism and, 362; Turkey, 49, 51, 53, 351, 384
steamships, Ottoman, 25
Stern, Avraham, 80
Stern Gang, 79, 80, 82
street demonstrations: Arab Spring, 5, 291–94, 293fig; Cairo, 5, 134, 292, 293fig; days of rage, 291; inclusionary states, 228; Iranian Republic, 157–58; Jordan, 230; Palestine state, 341. See also intifadas; riots; strikes
strikes: Iranis vs. Pahlavi state, 149, 150, 152–53; Palestinian (1936), 88
Sublime Porte (Bab-i Homayun/Bab-i Ali), Ottoman, 23, 38, 47
Sudan, 382; al-Bashir, 220, 258; bin Laden, 200; British and, 46–47, 218; civil war, 191, 220–22; conspiracy theories about, 274; cost-of-living riots, 356; cultural niche, 279; inclusionary state, 215; Liberation Army, 221–22; military rule, 221–22, 357; Nasser and, 96; October Revolution (1964), 218; Pan-Arabism, 72, 98; praetorian dictatorship, 214; separatists, 266; state employees, 218; statism, 351; al-Turabi, 257, 258; urban populations, 12; water, 402–3
Suez Canal: Arab-Israeli wars, 96–97, 127–31, 130fig, 424n57; nationalized by Egypt, 37, 93, 96, 108; West and, 36–38, 39, 46–47, 110, 413n28
Sufis, 411n63; vs. Atatürk, 53; Egypt, 284; Safavid genesis, 23, 29; Sanusi order, 50; Wahhabis and, 62–63
suicide bombings, 200, 208fig, 315; Palestinian, 323, 324, 335, 337, 451n48, 454n74
Suleyman I (r. 1520–66), 23
sultanistic states, 213, 214, 227–28, 229–39, 263, 283
summits: Arab League, 136, 193; Arab summit conference (Fez 1982), 125; Camp David II (2000), 332–34, 344; Nasser’s inauguration of (1964), 193; Non-Aligned Movement (Indonesia 1955), 92–93, 95
Sunnis, 217, 426n22; Bahrain, 272; Iran, 29; Iraq, 188; Lebanon, 247, 248; Ottomans, 29; Palestinian, 74, 310; Safavids vs., 29; Syria, 44, 227; traditionalists, 18–19
Swiss Civil Code, Turkey, 54
Sykes, Sir Mark, 43, 412n19
Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 38–41, 41map, 43, 44, 412n19
Syria, 1, 51; Alawis, 228, 269; Alexandretta, 51; Arab-Israeli wars, 84, 117–21, 124–26, 129–30, 135; Arab Revolt, 39, 40; Arab Spring and civil war (2011–13), 5, 217, 223, 267, 291, 294–96, 297fig, 447n124; Baʿthists, 109, 112–13, 116, 173–74, 218, 219, 251; birth of, 39, 46; and Camp David Accord (1978), 455n83; CIA plot to overthrow government, 111; coups, 109, 111, 113–14, 117, 218; cultural legitimation, 279; domestic politics, 109–17, 218, 219, 221; economic development, 348, 351, 357, 382, 403; economic reforms, 356–57; Egyptian union with (UAR, 1958–61), 72, 98, 106, 108, 109–10, 111–13; exclusionary state, 214, 217; French in, 38, 41–42, 45–46, 50, 79–80, 218; Hama massacre (1982), 222; inclusionary state, 215; intellectuals, 90, 106, 174, 257; and Iran, 190; Iraqi refugees after U.S. invasion, 206; Islamic expansion into, 17; and Israel, 119–21, 125–26, 129, 131, 134–35, 138, 190, 247, 403; Jacobite Church, 10; Kurds, 2; and Lebanon, 248–49, 288–89; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; military, 109, 111, 113, 117, 129, 221, 289; mukhaberat, 217, 220, 221; Ottomans, 23, 46; Palestinians in, 107, 309; Pan-Arabism, 72, 98, 108, 109, 113–14, 137; patrimonialism, 276; peace process, 331; political parties, 109, 112–13, 116, 173, 219, 222, 228, 251, 260, 280; “presidential monarchy,” 269, 270, 276; presidential political system, 109; railways, 37–38; Saddam in, 174; Saladin, 21; Second Gulf War, 185; security establishment, 269; Sinai I and II treaties and, 135; socialist state, 219; and Soviets, 190; Sykes-Picot Agreement, 40; Transjordan and, 413n27; unemployment, 272; UN peace resolutions, 125, 132; urban populations, 12; U.S. invasion of Iraq and, 203, 206; Vanguard for the Popular Liberation War, 124; water, 117, 402, 403; Zionist military and, 79–80. See also al-Assad family; Damascus; Golan Heights
Tabriz, Iran, 29, 32
Taʾif Accord (1972), 248–49, 288–89
Taliban, Afghanistan, 196, 200, 201, 261
Tantawi, Mohammed Hussein, 292–93
Tanzania, U.S. targets attacked in (1998), 195, 200
taxes: economic liberalization and, 260; informal sector and, 366, 367; Ottoman, 34, 62; PNA revenues, 342; rentierism and, 358, 359; semiformal sector, 371; Umayyad, 19
technology: high-technology exports, 375–77, 462n84, 463n85; science and, 34, 389. See also media
Tehran, 30–31, 403; air pollution, 397–99; despair, 404–5; embassy powers, 143; hostage crisis (1979–81), 155, 157–61, 171, 173, 176, 197, 428nn50,51; local associations, 31–32; population growth problems, 396, 397–99; University of Tehran, 60
telegraph lines, 25, 30
television, 243, 288; Al-Jazeera, 189fig, 198, 267, 292, 382
terrorism, 208; attacks on U.S. targets abroad, 195, 200; conspiracy theories about, 274; Irani reign of terror, 155, 156, 161–63, 168, 176; Islamist, 194–96, 261, 268; multinational corporations and, 261; national security states vs., 265; official nationalism and, 274; Turkish domestic, 243; U.S.-led coalition in Iraq vs. (1990s), 171; U.S. war on, 190, 195, 200–203, 336, 433n72; Zionist, 80, 83. See also Al-Qaeda/bin Laden; suicide bombings
al-Thani family, Qatar, 233
Thant, U, 118
Third World: cities, 396; depoliticization of militaries, 243; economic underdevelopment, 347–48; Egyptian advocacy of independence in, 96
Third Worldism (1950s), 139. See also revolutions
Tigris River, 12, 402–4
trade: caravan, 9; imports, 347–48, 377, 394–95, 464n16; intraregional, 377–82, 377–81tables; Mecca, 14. See also economic sectors; exports; oil
tradition: imagined/civic myth, 215, 231, 234, 238, 263; inclusionary states and, 227; state modernist transformation, 218; sultanistic states, 229–30, 232–33, 235, 237; Sunnis and, 18–19; traditionalist anticolonialism, 101, 102. See also cultural values; religions; tribalism
Trans-Iranian Railway, 60
Transjordan, 51; Abdullah, 42, 46, 71, 84, 412n14; birth of, 39, 42, 46; Britain and, 37, 39–46, 50, 65, 413n27; name change to Jordan, 41, 412n14. See also Jordan
transportation: airlifts in 1973 War, 129, 131, 424n59; imports in equipment for, 377; postal system, 25; road building, 59, 200, 320; steamships, 25; telegraph lines, 27, 30. See also airline violence; canals; motor vehicles; railways; ri
vers
treaties: Balfour Declaration (1917), 37, 39, 41, 42–43, 44; borders and national designations, 39, 44, 50; Geneva Convention (1947), 318; Iran-Iraq (1975), 173; Jordan-Israel peace (1994), 191, 403; Lausanne (1923), 28; San Remo Conference (April 1920), 39, 44; Sèvres (August 1920), 39, 44; Sinai I & II, 133, 135; Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 38–41, 41map, 44, 412n19; U.S.-Iran mutual military agreement (1959), 173; Versailles, 43; water, 403. See also Oslo Accords; peace process, Arab-Israeli; summits
tribalism: Iran, 57, 143; Jordan and, 236; oil monarchies, 215, 232–34; Quraysh, 14, 19; tribal corporations, 233; Turkic, 22, 28; uymaqs, 29, 30. See also nomadic tribes; ruling families
Tudeh Party, Iran, 150, 161
Tunisia, 1, 217–22; Al-Nahda, 217, 222, 251, 259, 282, 437n32; Arab Spring and revolution (2011), 5, 217, 251–52, 267, 275, 291–95, 386; beylik, 99, 104, 105; Bourguiba, 39, 100, 105–6, 114, 116–17, 215, 219; Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), 271; constitutions, 5, 106; cultural legitimation, 279; and democracy, 282; economic development, 351, 357, 364; exclusionary state, 215–19, 222; French in, 3, 38, 47–49, 98–106, 218; GDP, 352; al-Ghannouchi, 257, 258; inclusionary state, 215; independence, 100, 103–5, 218; Islamic expansion into, 17; languages, 3; liberalization, 219, 283; mukhaberat, 217, 220; and Nasser, 114, 116; national charter, 281; nationalism, 73, 100, 103–7; Ottomans, 23, 46, 47, 50, 106; PLO, 311, 325; political opposition, 217, 251–53, 258–59, 291, 292, 296; political parties, 100, 104–5, 107, 218, 219, 222, 251–52, 258–59, 271, 282; “presidential monarchy,” 269, 270; pro-Western state, 219; urban areas, 11; youth population, 266. See also Ben Ali, Zein el-Abidine
al-Turabi, Hasan (b. 1932), 257, 258
Turkey, 1, 27, 40, 51–56, 387; Alexandretta, 51; and Armenians, 27, 28, 53, 410n60; Baghdad Pact, 110; birth of, 39, 51–56; constitutions, 27–28, 242, 243, 411n61; corporatism, 55, 242–43, 278; cultural niche, 279; democratization, 215, 240, 241–44, 247, 262, 281, 283, 297; economic development, 51, 55, 348, 352, 355, 357, 364; and globalization, 383; Greeks in, 28, 53; Gulf War effects, 194; harem, 26fig; independence (1923), 28, 53, 56, 69–70; and Islam, 52, 54, 56, 243–44, 255; Islamists, 259, 261; Israel alliances, 194; Khomeini exile to, 147; Konya and Bursa, 12; Kurds, 2, 50, 52, 53, 58, 242, 244–45, 263; loyal opposition, 54; military, 53, 240–44, 247, 263, 283, 348; military coups, 240, 242–44, 283–84; modernization, 51, 53–56, 66, 242; Mosul, 51; motor vehicles, 397; nationalism, 27–28, 51–56, 70, 71–72, 106, 242, 383; national name, 52–53, 70; National Security Council (NSC), 242–43, 247, 283; NATO, 110, 111; Ottomans, 20, 22, 23, 28, 47, 51–53; political opposition, 252–53, 259, 263; political parties, 53–55, 242–45, 252–53, 259, 260, 283–84; quasi-democratic state, 215, 240, 241–44, 247, 263; regional dominance, 194–97; republicanism, 28, 50, 53–54, 56; revolutionism, 51, 53, 54, 140, 242, 413n37; Saljuqs, 20, 22; state formation, 27–28, 38, 39, 51–56; state-led social change, 54, 384; statism, 49, 51, 53, 351, 384; Swiss Civil Code, 54; Syrian border conflict, 111, 112; Turks as ethnic majority, 2, 241; urban populations, 408n14; water, 400, 401, 402; with West vs. communists, 95. See also Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal; Istanbul
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