Turkic tribes, 22, 28
Turkmans, Sunni, 29
Turks: Turkey ethnic majority, 2, 241. See also Ottoman Empire; Turkey; Young Turks
ulama, 255–58; Iran, 30, 31, 57–58, 60, 145, 152–66, 180, 190, 257, 284; Islamist, 156–63, 255–58, 262–63; Morocco, 237, 255; Ottoman, 25–28, 34; political opposition, 152–66, 255–58, 262–64; quietist, 256. See also imams
Umar (634–44), 18
Umayyads, 18–19, 20–21, 33
umma, 16; Medina, 15, 16; Muslim divisions over, 18; Ottoman, 29, 33–34, 52, 71. See also imams; ulama
unemployment, 141, 261, 266, 272
Unified Leadership of the Uprising (ULU), Palestinian, 314, 315, 451n48
United Arab Emirates (UAE): Dubai skyscrapers, 375fig; economics, 181–82, 352, 369; environmental awareness, 399; and globalization, 383; and Iraq, 181–82, 184; sultanistic state, 214, 232, 233, 234
United Arab List, Arab Israeli political party, 245–46
United Arab Republic (UAR): Egypt-Syria union (1958–61), 72, 98, 107, 108, 109–10, 111–13; after Syria’s withdrawal (1961), 113, 114, 116, 117
United Arab States, 114
United Nations: Ban Ki-moon, 342–43; economic sanctions on Iraq, 199; Emergency Forces (UNEF) on Egyptian-Israeli border, 118; Iran-Iraq War cease-fire (Resolution 598), 178, 181, 431n37; Iraq compliance (Resolution 1441), 204; Iraq inspection teams, 188–89, 203; land for peace (Resolution 242), 125, 132, 326; Libya, 99, 295; Operation Iron Cast casualties, 339; Palestine nonmember observer status, 341, 342; and Palestinians in Israeli-Occupied Territories, 319, 323; Partition Plan (Resolution 181), 80–82, 81map, 84, 418n37; PLO legitimacy, 136, 449n28; PLO observer status, 136; Quartet on the Middle East, 343; Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA), 309; Second Gulf War (Resolutions 660/662/674), 188; Soviets in Iran, 143; Suez Canal crisis, 96; UN Emergency Force (UNEF), 96, 118; U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003), 204–5; U.S. war on terrorism, 203; U Thant, 118; Yemeni civil war, 116
United States: Afghanistan Operation Enduring Freedom, 196–207, 336, 342, 404; aid to Israel, 131, 197–98, 432n60, 433n61; and Al-Aqsa intifada, 336; anti-Americanism in Middle East, 186, 196–99, 207–8; attacks abroad on, 195, 200; Baghdad Pact, 110; Balfour Declaration and, 42–43; George W. Bush, 190, 195, 200–205, 336–37, 342, 433n61; George H. Bush, 184, 190, 197, 201–2; Camp David Accords, 125, 197, 325–27, 331–34, 336–37; Carter, 134, 150, 157–60, 197, 326; Cold War, 110–11, 146, 170, 197, 207; democracy, 240; dual containment policy, 191, 199, 201; Eisenhower, 110–11, 197; graffiti on embassy in Egypt (September 2012), 294fig; and Hamas, 339; and human rights abuses, 150, 198, 318; and Iran in 1930s, 61; Iran-Contra Affair, 161, 428n57; Iranian hostage crisis (1979–81), 155, 157–61, 171, 173, 176, 197, 428nn50,51; Iranian mutual military agreement (1959), 173; and Iranian shah, 144–46, 157–58, 198, 427n34; Iran-Iraq War, 180, 181; Iran’s continuing tensions with, 167, 404; Iran’s Khatami and, 165; and Iraqi Kurds, 188; Iraq occupation, 189, 201–7, 337, 342, 406; Jews, 42, 197–98, 303; and Lebanese civil war, 248–49; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; Middle East policies, 110–11, 170, 172, 191, 196–207; military presence in Middle East and Central Asia, 198, 201, 203; and Nasser’s Egypt, 95, 96, 111; national security strategy of prevention and preemption, 200; New World Order, 172, 191; 1973 war, 131–32, 137; Nixon, 128, 137, 197; Obama, 199, 207, 342; Oklahoma City bombing (1995), 195; Palestinians in, 309; patron-client relationships, 198; pax Americana, 196, 199, 201; Quartet on the Middle East, 343; Reagan, 160–61, 184, 204; Franklin D. Roosevelt, 197; Sadat and, 133–34, 198, 325–27; and Saudi Arabia, 64, 192, 198, 199, 200, 260; September 11, 2001, 172, 190, 194–96, 200–204, 261; State Department, 64, 318, 323, 335; unofficial nationalism and, 276; and War of Attrition, 127–28; war on terrorism, 190, 195, 200–203, 336, 433n72; Wilson, 42, 44, 100; World Trade Center attacks (1993), 195; World War II supply route, 381; Zionist Partition Plan endorsed by, 418n37. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); Clinton, Bill; Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003); Second Gulf War (1990–91)
upper classes: economic liberalization and, 261; quasi-democracies, 241; semiformal sector compared, 370. See also ruling families
uprisings. See rebellion; riots
urban areas, 6, 11–13, 33, 408n14; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 267; Beirut, 38, 125; Byzantium, 10; Constantinople, 10, 11, 21, 22; economic development, 353, 360; environmental pollution, 396–98; informal sector employment, 365–66; Mesopotamia, 11, 408n7; migration from rural areas to, 85, 255, 353, 365, 366, 368, 396, 408n14; political opposition organizations, 253; population concentrations, 12–13, 33, 396, 397; poverty, 369; Riyadh, 12, 62, 63, 200; Safavid, 29; and secular nationalism’s decline, 254; state-society relations, 253, 280. See also Baghdad; Cairo; Damascus; Istanbul; Jerusalem; Mecca; Medina; Tehran
Uruguay, democratization, 281
USS Cole bombing (2000), Yemen, 195, 200
U Thant, 118
Uthman (644–56), 16, 18, 19
uymaqs, 29, 30
veil, Islamic, 54, 60, 414n47
Velvet Revolutions, Europe, 405
Venice, Ottomans and, 23, 24
Vietnam: revolution, 140; War, 137, 184
villages, 11–13, 33, 63
violence, 406; Arab Revolt (1936–39), 88; by colonizers, 48, 102–4; Egyptian internal, 134, 222, 369; exclusionary states, 222; executions, 206, 369; Iranian internal, 155–67, 176, 286; Iran-Iraq War bloody fights, 178, 179, 282; Iraqi Baʿth party/RCC/Saddam, 174–75, 184, 188; Islamic fundamentalist, 194–96, 260–62; Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 79–80, 83, 135–38, 193, 312–21, 323, 334–40, 450–54; with Kurds, 3, 188, 244–45; Maghrebi independence, 100, 102–4; Nasser’s Egypt, 95; Sadat assassination (1981), 134, 228; Tunisia (1990s), 222; after U.S. invasion of Iraq, 206. See also airline violence; bombings; coups; human rights abuses; intifadas; massacres; repression, state; riots; terrorism; wars; weapons of mass destruction
Vitalis, Robert, 416n83
Von Grunebaum, G.E., 20
voting: exit from politics and, 280; rights, 94fig, 147, 240, 245–46. See also elections
al-Waʾad/Democratic Unionist Party, Jordan, 251–53
Wafd Party, Egypt, 91, 251
Wahhab, Muhammad ibn Abdel, 62
Wahhabis, 62–63
Wahid, Abdurrahman (1941–2009), 258
Wailing Wall, Jerusalem, 319, 333
Waqf land, 256, 333
wars, 4, 213–48; Afghanistan, 159, 170, 196–207, 336, 342, 404; British-Ottoman battle of Gallipoli, 37; Cold War, 110–11, 146, 170, 193, 197, 207; democracy and, 213; French-Algerian, 103–4; independence, 38; international human rights agreements, 318; Iran-Russia (1804–5 and 1828), 30; Islamic expansion after Prophet’s death, 17–18; jihad, 39, 260, 315, 441–42n114; Muslims vs. Meccans, 17; Rif, 48; U.S. war on terrorism, 190, 195, 200–203, 336; Vietnam, 137, 184; water, 404. See also Arab-Israeli wars; casualties; civil wars; Great War (1914–18); Gulf Wars; revolutions; Second World War (1939–45); weapons of mass destruction
water: cooperative tradition over, 404; irrigation, 12, 33, 400; Israel and Occupied Territories, 117, 319, 334, 402, 403; pollution, 397, 400–401; rainfall, 400, 401; scarcity, 388, 400–405, 401table; sources, 400–404; Syria, 117, 402, 403. See also canals; rivers
Waterbury, John, 349, 461n62
weapons of mass destruction: Iraq and, 171, 180–81, 185, 188–89, 203, 204. See also nuclear program
Weber, Max, 220, 232
Weizman, Ezer, 326
Weizmann, Chaim, 43, 73
welfare, social programs, 231, 265–66, 271, 362–63, 383
West: and democracy, 240–41, 242; globalization and, 382; Iranian middle-class fascination with, 152; Iran’s Khatami and, 164–65; Khomeini exile in, 153; Nasser’s stance, 95–96, 97–98; nature of nationalism in, 85; oil embargo against, 136–37; Persian Gulf policies, 170; pro-Western exclusionary states, 219; and Suez Canal, 36–38, 39, 46–47, 110, 413n28; and Third World
economic underdevelopment, 347; and ulama vs. state, 256. See also Europe; United States; wars
West Bank, 84; Camp David Accords and, 327, 333–34; divorce from Gaza Strip, 339; economic and cultural divisions, 308; economic strangulation, 321–23, 332; Hebron, 321, 322fig; house demolitions, 123, 317–19, 418n35, 453n64; human rights abuses by Israelis, 452n54; intifada, 86, 311, 314; Islam increasing in, 314; Israeli occupation, 123, 128, 135–36, 311, 314, 319–22, 332, 333; Jordan and, 126, 136, 235, 326, 455n87; Oslo Accords/Rabin-PLO negotiation over (1993), 135, 328–29; Palestinian depopulation, 317–19; Palestinian population, 107, 123, 309; poverty, 322–23; refugee camps, 309, 317, 450n39; road building and, 320; Sadat initiative and, 326; security fence, 337–38; settlements, 342; Six-Day War, 119, 121, 123, 126; universities, 311; water, 334, 402
Weststruckness/Gharbzadegi (Al-e Ahmad), 151
Westphalian sovereignty, 86–87, 417n10
Wheatcroft, Andrew, 24
White Revolution (Inqilab-e Sefeed)/Revolution of the Shah and the People (1963), Iran, 146–48, 152
Wilson, Woodrow, 42, 44, 100
Wingate, Orde, 79–80
Wolfowitz, Paul, 204
women: Algeria (1880s), 49fig; and birth control, 389–93; environmental awareness (UAE), 399; “family protection” laws, 256; fertility rates, 389, 392table, 394–96, 425n3; harem, 26fig; Iran, 60, 161, 163, 165, 284; Iraqi wartime, 72fig, 175fig, 187fig, 207fig, 208fig; Islamic dress code, 54, 60, 161, 414n47; Israeli Haganah, 79fig; Palestinian wartime, 312, 336fig, 340fig; rights, 94fig, 147, 240, 256, 284, 387–88; Tunisian modernism and, 105
World Bank: cars per individual, 398table; CO2 emissions, 398table; employment opportunities, 355; FDI, 376table; GDP, 353–54tables; infrastructure investments, 357; loans, 243, 356, 361; population data, 388, 390–91table, 392, 392table, 395table; poverty in Occupied Territories, 322–23, 454n72; state-owned manufacturing, 351; trade indicators, 378table
World War I. See Great War (1914–18)
World War II. See Second World War (1939–45)
World Zionist Organization, 75; Revisionists, 80
writers: Palestinian, 87; poetry, 1, 56, 257, 414n56. See also literature; newspapers
Wye River Memorandum, 331
Yarmuk River, Syrian development projects, 403
Yathrib, Prophet Muhammad, 11, 15, 409n21
Yemen: Arab Republic, 114–16; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 291, 294, 296; and Camp David Accord (1978), 455n83; civil wars, 109, 114–16, 294; and democracy, 271; Iriani, 422n22; Islah (Reform) Party, 251; Nasser’s Egypt and, 98, 108, 109, 114–17, 123, 137; National Liberation Front, 114; oil workers from, 360, 369; Pan-Arabism, 98, 108; People’s Democratic Republic of, 114; praetorian dictatorship, 214; republicanism, 114–16; revolutions, 115, 294, 296; Saladin, 21; Salal, 422n22; Saleh regime, 290, 296; Sanaa, 12; urban populations, 12; USS Cole bombing (2000), 195, 200; youth population, 266
Yezid III (r. 744), 19
Yom Kippur, 1973 war, 129, 131, 423n55
Yona, Emma Zvi, 300fig
Young Egypt Society, 91
Young Ottomans, 27
Young Turks, 27–28, 51–54, 284, 411n61
youth: Afghan Mujahedeen, 199; employment, 266, 291, 298, 323, 355, 393; intifada, 323; Iran, 151, 156, 165, 167, 176; Islamist, 255, 257; marriage in, 389; Nasserism, 90, 91, 92, 109, 137; Palestinian, 82, 123–24, 310, 311, 323, 335, 450n39; population, 266, 393; statism and, 349; Syria, 109; ties between, 366; Tunisia, 104–5; Zionists immigrating to Promised Land, 76. See also children
YouTube, protests, 291
Zahedi, Fazlollah, 145
Zaire, Mabuto, 217
al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab, 206
Zeroul, Liamine, 220
Zia-alddin Tabatabai, Sayyid, 32–33, 56
Zionists, 51, 70, 73–84, 98, 106–7, 299; aim, 75; Balfour Declaration and, 42, 43, 44; Eretz Israel, 74, 301; and haskala, 74, 417n14; Herzl, 73–75, 78–79, 416n6; Labor Zionism, 303; military, 75–76, 79–80, 79fig, 82–83, 88; Palestinian phases of nationalism and, 85, 87–88; Partition Plan, 418n37; religious, 301–12; Rothschilds, 42, 43, 76; secular, 301–12; statelike institutions, 75, 418n21; Sykes and, 43, 412n19. See also Ben-Gurion, David; Israel; Palestinian-Israeli conflict
Zoroastrianism, 10
zuʿama, 247, 250, 288
Text: 10/13 Aldus
Display: Franklin Gothic
Compositor: IDS Infotech, Ltd.
Indexer: Barbara Roos
Cartographer: Bill Nelson
Printer and binder: Maple Press
The Modern Middle East - A Political History Since World War I (Third Edition) Page 75