33. See extracts of letters from Clinton to Cornwallis, June 28 and July 11, 1781 (extracts of two letters), in Clinton, American Rebellion, pp. 534, 543–54.
34. Ewald, Diary of the American War, p. 319.
35. Diaries, 3, pp. 409–10.
36. Diaries, 3, p. 411.
37. GW and Rochambeau to de Grasse, August 17, 1781, in WW, 23, pp. 7–10.
38. Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, p. 115.
39. “Diary of a French Officer, 1781: Part 3,” Magazine of American History, 4 (1880), pp. 376–85: 377–79.
40. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 263.
41. Acomb, ed. Journal of Closen, pp. 120–21.
42. See GW to Lafayette, August 27 and September 2, 1781, and to Greene, September 4, 1781, in WW, 23, pp. 52–53, 75–78, 84–86.
43. Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, p. 123; “Diary of a French Officer, 1781: Part 3,” Magazine of American History (1880), p. 384.
44. GW to Noah Webster, July 31, 1788, in WW, 30, pp. 26–28.
45. GW to the Superintendent of Finance, September 6–7, 1781, in WW, 23, pp. 89, 95; Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, p. 124.
46. Diaries, 3, p. 419, and note 1; Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, p. 129.
47. For a balanced discussion of this controversial episode, see M. M. Boatner, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (New York, 1958), pp. 787–88.
48. Edward M. Riley, ed., “St. George Tucker’s Journal of the Siege of Yorktown, 1781,” in WMQ, 5 (1948), pp. 375–95: 377.
49. Kennett, French Forces in America, pp. 143–44.
50. GW to de Grasse, September 25, 1781, in WW, 23, p. 136.
51. Thacher, Military Journal, pp. 269–70.
52. For Cromwell’s story and a reproduction of his discharge certificate, see Sidney Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770–1800 (Washington, D.C., 1973), pp. 47–48.
53. General Orders, headquarters, Williamsburg, September 27, 1781, WW, 23, pp. 147–48; Martin, Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier, p. 197.
54. Steuben to Franklin, September 28, 1779, in Willcox, ed., Papers of Franklin, 30, p. 413.
55. See Harold L. Peterson, Arms and Armor in Colonial America (New York, 1956), pp. 286–89. See also General Orders: Valley Forge, December 22, 1777, in PWRW, 12, p. 663; Morristown, April 4, 1780, in WW, 18, pp. 214–15; Newburgh, August 9, 1782, in WW, 24, pp. 491–92. For the incident at White Plains, see Clinton, American Rebellion, pp. 51–52, and note 27.
56. Golway, Washington’s General, pp. 280–84.
57. F. and M. Wickwire, Cornwallis, pp. 369–70.
58. Diaries, 3, p. 423.
59. Martin, Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier, p. 199.
60. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 274.
61. Diaries, 3, p. 425; Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, pp. 152, 156.
62. Thacher, Military Journal, pp. 274–75.
63. Dann, ed., The Revolution Remembered, pp. 244–45. Sarah Osborn’s story survives in the testimony she provided in 1837, when aged eighty-one, to secure her dead husband’s military pension.
64. Freeman, Washington, 5, p. 369.
65. GW to the President of Congress, October 16, 1781, in WW, 23, p. 228.
66. Thacher, Military Journal, pp. 275–76.
67. See Hamilton to Lafayette, October 15, 1781, and to Elizabeth Hamilton, October 16, 1781, in Syrett, ed., Papers of Hamilton, 2, pp. 679–82.
68. Suddarth’s testimony was included in the narrative he submitted in 1839 to support his successful application for a revolutionary war pension. See Dann, ed., The Revolution Remembered, pp. 239–40.
69. See the terms in GW to Cornwallis, October 18, 1781, in WW, 23, pp. 237–38.
70. Griffiths’s story emerges from a testimonial that Simcoe wrote on his behalf in 1789 to support his belated application for a Chelsea pension. See National Archives, WO/121/6, Chelsea Board of August 5, 1789. The registers of Royal Hospital Chelsea for the same date (in WO/116/9) show that Griffiths, who was then aged twenty-six, was appointed to a company of invalid soldiers as an alternative to being placed upon the “out-pension.” Although appointed to the invalids at Chester Castle, he was discharged on Christmas Eve, 1790 (see WO/12/11600: Musters of the Invalids, Chester, 1783–1802).
71. Gruber, ed., Peebles’ American War, pp. 480, 483–4.
72. This follows Count Mathieu Dumas, Memoirs of His Own Time, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1839), 1, 52n–53n, cited in George F. Scheer and Hugh F. Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those Who Fought and Lived It (New York, 1957), p. 494, supplemented by Thacher, Military Journal, p. 279. See also the balanced account in Freeman, Washington, 5, pp. 388–90.
73. Dann, ed., The Revolution Remembered, p. 245. Lieutenant O’Hara was described as “a spirited young officer.” See Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton, A History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781, in the Southern Provinces of North America (London, 1787), p. 280.
74. The evidence is discussed in Freeman, Washington, 5, p. 388, note 47.
75. See National Archives, Kew, WO/121/8 (Chelsea Board of June 8, 1790). Both men must have served in the 2nd Battalion of the 71st, as the 1st/71st was captured at Cowpens in January 1781.
76. See Greene to GW, May 31, 1779, in Showman, ed., Papers of Greene, 4, p. 108; Millett and Maslowski, For the Common Defense, p. 55.
77. GW to the President of Congress, November 5, 1780, in WW, 20, p. 293.
78. Ewald, Diary of the American War, pp. 339–41.
79. Conway, “Britain and the Revolutionary Crisis,” in Marshall, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire: The Eighteenth Century, pp. 342–43.
80. See F. and M. Wickwire, Cornwallis, p. 978, citing Bill, Campaign of Princeton, p. 121.
81. Acomb, ed., Journal of Closen, pp. 239–40; GW to John Jay, October 18, 1782, in WW, 25, p. 275.
82. GW to Brigadier General William Irvine, July 10 and August 6, 1782, in WW, 24, pp. 417, 474. See also Calloway, The Shawnees and the War for America, p. 72.
83. GW to Lincoln, October 2, 1782, in WW, 25, pp. 226–28.
84. On this episode, see especially, Richard H. Kohn, “The Inside Story of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d’Etat,” in WMQ, 27 (1970), pp. 187–220; and the same author’s Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802 (New York, 1975), pp. 17–39; also Royster, A Revolutionary People at War, pp. 333–38.
85. Hamilton to GW, February 13, 1783 in Syrett, ed., Papers of Hamilton, 3, pp. 253–55.
86. GW to Hamilton, March 4, 1783, in WW, 26, p. 186; also Freeman, Washington, 5, p. 429.
87. Nelson, General Horatio Gates, pp. 271–73.
88. JCC, 24, pp. 295–97.
89. GW to Joseph Jones, March 12, 1783, in WW, 26, pp. 213–14; General Orders, headquarters, Newburgh, March 11, 1783, in WW, 26, p. 208; JCC, 24, pp. 297–99.
90. GW to the Officers of the Army, headquarters, Newburgh, March 15, 1783, in WW, 26, pp. 224–27.
91. See Freeman, Washington, 5, p. 435, and note 39; also Flexner, Washington in the American Revolution, p. 507. For “virtuoso performance,” see Millett and Maslowski, For the Common Defense, p. 83; for “finest hour,” see Higginbotham, George Washington and the American Military Tradition, p. 99. Paul Longmore observes that Washington increasingly saw himself as an actor “playing the primary role in a great historical drama,” capable of delivering restrained, but highly effective performances. See Longmore, Invention of George Washington, pp. 182–83.
92. See GW to Boudinot and Jones, March 18, 1783, in WW, 26, pp. 230–34.
93. See Richard H. Kohn, “American Generals of the Revolution: Subordination and Restraint,” in Don Higginbotham, ed., Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War (Westport, Connecticut, 1978), pp. 104–23: 117; GW to Colonel Nicola, May 22, 1780, in WW, 24, pp. 272–73; Freeman, Washington, 5, p. 416.
94. On divisions between the Continent
al Army’s officers and men and the implications for any attempted coup, see Martin, “‘A Most Undisciplined Profligate Crew,’” in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Arms and Independence, pp. 137–39; also Royster, A Revolutionary People at War, pp. 335–36; Martin, Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier, pp. 218, 226.
95. See General Orders, headquarters, Newburgh, March 29 and April 18, 1783, in WW, 26, pp. 268–69, 334–36.
96. Martin, Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier, pp. 243–44.
97. Orders to the Armies of the United States, November 2, 1783, in WW, 27, pp. 223–27.
98. GW’s “Address to the Continental Congress on Resigning his Commission,” December 23, 1783, WW, 27, pp. 284–85.
99. See Martin and Lender, A Respectable Army, pp. 201–203.
100. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, p. 13
101. This overview of Harmar’s and St. Clair’s defeats follows Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815 (Norman, Oklahoma, 1998), pp. 141–47. For Cornwallis’s guns, see Wiley Sword, President Washington’s Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795 (Norman, Oklahoma), p. 188.
102. Ibid., pp. 204–205.
103. See “Opinion of the General Officers,” March 9, 1792, in WW, 31, pp. 509–15.
104. Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, p. 150; Kohn, Eagle and Sword, p. 124.
105. Quoted in Nelson, Anthony Wayne, pp. 266–67.
106. Diaries, 6, p. 192 and note.
107. On French veterans at the Bastille, see Kennett, French Forces in America, xii–xiii; for Lafayette and d’Estaing, see Boatner, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, pp. 350, 593.
108. Lengel, General George Washington, pp. 359–60.
109. GW to the secretary at war, December 13, 1798, and to William Fitzhugh, August 5, 1798, cited and discussed in Rasmussen and Tilton, George Washington: The Man Behind the Myths, pp. 113–14.
110. See Kohn, Eagle and Sword, p. 253; Ellis, His Excellency, George Washington, pp. 158–60; Longmore, Invention of George Washington, p. 297, note 25.
111. Martin, Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier, pp. 249–52. Martin published his memoir anonymously in 1830, two years before the introduction of pensions for all eligible Revolutionary War veterans, including militiamen.
112. GW to Sarah Cary Fairfax, May 16, 1798, in WW, 36, pp. 262–64.
113. GW to Chastellux, April 25–May 1, 1788, in WW, 29, pp. 484–85. The engraving of Wright’s painting was issued in 1797. See Robert Rosenblum, “Sources of Two Paintings by Joseph Wright of Derby,” in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institute, 25 (1962), pp. 135–36: 136.
114. See James Thomas Flexner, George Washington: Anguish and Farewell (1793–1799) (Boston, 1969), p. 459.
115. For this description, see Congressman Thomas Cushing to James Bowdoin Snr., June 21, 1775, in Smith, ed., Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1, p. 530.
116. Fortescue, History of the British Army, 3, pp. 409–10.
Acknowledgments
This book goes back to the summer of 2004, when I was invited to speak at Fort Necessity, Pennsylvania, as part of a weekend of events to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the young George Washington’s defeat there. By that time I had already had the pleasure of meeting Robert and Mary Matzen of Paladin Communications, who asked me to participate, as an on-screen commentator, in what would become a trilogy of award-winning dramatized documentaries examining Washington’s career before the Revolutionary War. Interviews conducted for the third of their films, Pursuit of Honor: the Rise of George Washington, prompted me to begin exploring themes that ultimately became central to George Washington: Gentleman Warrior. These were shot in 2005 during the 17th Annual French and Indian War History Seminar, organized by the Braddock Road Preservation Association at Jumonville, Pennsylvania, just a short hike from the rocky glen where Washington helped to trigger a war that changed the course of North America’s history.
Since then, the opportunity to speak at other conferences in both Great Britain and the United States has proved extremely helpful in shaping my ideas. While actually writing my book I was fortunate to have the chance to talk about the wars that made Washington’s reputation, and his relationship with the British Army, at Fort Loudoun, Vonore, Tennessee, in August 2010 and at the University of Leeds, Yorkshire, in July 2011. Both of these very lively and stimulating gatherings provided me with useful and timely feedback as I finalized my arguments. Thanks also go to Kurt A. Bodling, of the library at George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate and Gardens, for his courteous response to my inquiries. It is likewise a pleasure to acknowledge the help I’ve received from Tony Morris and John Houlding.
Through my research interests in Colonial and Revolutionary America I have been lucky enough to strike up some enduring transatlantic friendships. For their continuing fellowship and hospitality I’m especially grateful to Walt and Sue Powell, Martin and Penny West, Jeff and Diane Wells, Nick Westbrook, Tom Hatley, David Miller, Ian McCulloch, John-Eric Nelson, Anthony Hatch, and Tom Fink. Two other American friends, R. Scott Stephenson and Will Tatum, generously helped to confirm sources for me. On several trips to western Pennsylvania I also enjoyed meeting the late David Dixon, a fine scholar and a good companion who is greatly missed.
In Amsterdam, where the extensive American history collection in the University humanities library was an invaluable resource, I have much appreciated the company of Ray Barlow and Alex Thirlwall. Neither of them is a historian, but both have listened to my ramblings in the city’s hostelries without complaint and maintained a keen interest in the project’s progress. Another friend and drinking companion, Andy Robb, kindly read one of my draft chapters while recovering in hospital following surgery. I’m also obliged to Dick Visser, whose expertise saved the day when my aged computer crashed at a critical moment.
From the outset, all at my London publisher, Quercus, have shown professionalism, enthusiasm, and consideration. Crucially, nonfiction publishing director Richard Milner allowed me scope to refocus the book along new lines. I also owe special thanks to my editor, Joshua Ireland, for all his patience, encouragement, and close attention to the manuscript. His thoughtful comments have resulted in a much-improved book. In addition, I wish to thank picture researcher Elaine Willis for her indefatigable efforts in tracking down the precise images that I wanted, Bill Donohoe for transforming my rough sketches into clear and attractive maps, and David Watson for his thorough copy editing of the original British text. The North American edition has benefited enormously from the diligence of Nathaniel Marunas and his colleagues at the Quercus Publishing offices in New York, especially copy editor Mary Anne Stewart and managing editor Theresa Deal.
Finally, I have always valued the interest shown in my work by all of my family, and especially the unstinting support and understanding of my wife, Laura, and our children, Milly and Ivan. This book is dedicated to them with affection and gratitude.
Index
2nd New Jersey Regiment 397
3rd New Hampshire Regiment 201
3rd New York Regiment 403
3rd Virginia Regiment 359
5th Regiment of Foot 197
6th Connecticut Regiment 358
7th Connecticut Regiment 223
16th Light Dragoons 267, 291
17th Regiment of Foot 167, 291, 293, 306
22nd Regiment of Foot 168, 208
23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers) 262, 327
28th Regiment of Foot 163
35th Regiment of Foot 169
40th Regiment of Foot 291, 293, 310, 312
42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment 171, 248, 261, 272, 277, 298, 299, 311, 359
see also Black Watch
43rd Regiment of Foot 187, 198
44th Regiment of Foot 65, 69, 77, 79, 99, 167
48th Regiment of Foot 65, 69, 73, 75, 79, 99, 163, 188
55th Regiment of Foot 291, 293
58th Regiment of Foot 187
63r
d Regiment of Foot 327
71st Highlanders 349, 408
Abercromby, Major General James 122, 132, 134, 148
Adams, Abigail 193
Adams, John 186, 191–92, 193, 194, 245, 246, 251–52, 299, 311, 329, 332, 426, 427, 428, 430
Adams, Samuel 299, 332, 336
Addison, Joseph 138, 182, 218, 336
Africa, slaves from 20, 33
agricultural revolution 160
Albany 212, 233, 253, 308, 313, 363
Albermarle, William Anne, Earl of 65
Alexander the Great 165
Alexander, Brigadier General William (“Lord Stirling”) 238, 239, 241, 265, 301, 305, 311, 318, 325, 330, 367
Alexandria 49, 68, 72, 84, 86, 90, 91, 173
Allegheny Mountains 38, 64, 86, 129, 130, 139
Allegheny River 36, 39, 45, 149
Allen, Ethan 215, 230
Allentown 340
American Regiment 22–25, 35, 326
American Revolutionary War/American War of Independence see Revolutionary War
Amherst, Major General Jeffery 134, 162, 167, 168–69, 171, 172
Amson, Dr. John 120
André, Captain/Major John 311, 320, 364–69
Annapolis 86, 420
Anne, Queen 121, 122
Annual Register 5, 183
Antigua 121
Appalachian Mountains 18, 36, 171, 173, 175
Aquackanock 263
Arbuthnot, Vice Admiral Marriot 362, 377, 381, 388
Arminius 352
Armstrong, Colonel/Brigadier John 149, 150, 153, 201, 318
Armstrong Jr., John 415
Arnold, Colonel/Brigadier General/Major General Benedict 212, 215, 217–18, 229, 254, 298, 308, 313, 334, 336, 343
Arnold, Colonel (cont'd)
with British Army 374–76, 377, 386, 395
treason of 363–65, 368–69, 413
Articles of Confederation 413
Articles of War 111, 205, 251–52, 333, 335, 358, 418
Ashby, Captain John 89
assemblies, colonial 19
Assunpink Creek 277, 282, 287, 288
Atkin, Edmond 110, 115–16, 125
Aubry, Captain Charles Philippe 145
Augusta 349
George Washington Page 54