Emmett Till murder: Basic sources are Halberstam, pp. 430–40; Whitfield, A Death in the Delta; Williams, Eyes on the Prize; William Bradford Huie, “Approved Killing in Mississippi,” Look, Jan. 24, 1956; I. F. Stone’s columns, collected in The Haunted Fifties; and Murray Kempton’s columns in NYP, Sept. 19–26, 1955.
Talking “fresh”: Whitfield, p. 16; Williams, pp. 41–42.
Taking Till away: Whitfield, pp. 20, 38. “Mama, Lord have mercy”: Reed, a witness at the trial, quoted in Whitfield, p. 40.
“Went by custom”: Smith, quoted in Whitfield, p. 21. Identified by ring: Williams, p. 43. “Have you ever”: Mamie Till Bradley, quoted in Williams, p. 44. “Is aroused”: Whitfield, p. 22. “Jungle fury”; For many reasons; “Here”: Halberstam, p. 436.
“The boy who”; “How old”: Williams, p. 42. If he testified: Whitfield, p. 38.
Unusual public officials: The Nation’s correspondent singled out Swango and Chatham as “native Mississippians whose devotion throughout this occasion was to justice above states’ rights and local customs”; Wakefield, quoted in Whitfield, p. 44.
Not a single Negro: Whitfield, pp. 44–45. “There ain’t”: Strider, quoted in Halberstam, p. 49. Diggs incident: Halberstam, p. 440; Whitfield, p. 37. “Like a circus”: Hurley, in Raines, p. 132. Wright at the trial: Vivid descriptions of the trial are in Whitfield and Halberstam, among others, but best is Kempton in NYP, Sept. 19–25, 1955.
“An expression”; “humble”: Whitfield, pp. 40–43; Stone, p. 107; Williams, p. 41.
“Sexy whopper”: Stone, Haunted Fifties, Oct. 3, 1955. “Your ancestors”: Carlton, quoted in Halberstam, p. 441. Bottle of pop: Whitfield, p. 42. “If she tried”: Jury foreman J. A. Shaw Jr., quoted in Stone, Oct. 3, 1955. “For the first time”; “We’ve got”: Whitfield, p. 333. “The fear”: Moody, Coming of Age, pp. 121, 127. “Shook the foundations”: Myrlie Evers, quoted in Whitfield, p. 60. “Cried”; “Everyone”: Williams, pp. 43, 47. “Covered”: Hicks, quoted in Williams, p. 51.
“The fact remains”: NYT, Sept. 7, 1955; Whitfield, p. 24. “Both the wolf whistle”: Whitfield, p. 46. “Scandalous”; “the life”: Quoted in Whitfield, p. 46.
“The other”; “needs a Gandhi”: Stone, pp. 107–09. “The same disease”: Whitfield, pp. 45–46. “Evil, bigoted”: NYT, Sept. 25, 1955. “A critical junction”: Halberstam, pp. 436–47. “Emmett Till’s River”: Quoted in Martin, p. 8. “That river’s”: Whitfield, p. 34. “Controlled hostility”: NYT, Sept. 20, 1955. “You lie”: Dan Wakefield, “Justice in Summer,” The Nation, Oct. 1, 1955. “Historic”: Diggs, quoted in Williams, p. 49.
Start of Montgomery Bus Boycott: Branch, pp. 131–35.
31. The Compassion
of Lyndon Johnson
“I’m not”: Johnson, quoted in Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson, pp. 232, 230. “The man”: Reedy OH III, p. 27. “I’m telling”: Douglas, Full Life, p. 363.
“You’re dead”: Clifford and Virginia Durr OH.
In 8-F: Brown, Clark, Oltorf interviews. “He went out of his way to let them know he felt the way they did,” Oltorf says. “He didn’t wait to be asked.” Clark’s “joke”: Clark interview.
“We were”: Stibbens interview. “Natives very much”: “LBJ World War II Diary,” p. 3, Box 73, LBJA SF. Reinforced: Connally interview. “Negro problem”: “LBJ World War II Diary,” p. 8. “I don’t think”: Stibbens tape. “I know”: Wicker, JFK and LBJ, p. 196. “If we”: Sidey to NYK, Jan. 29, 1968, p. 4, SP. Eurasian references: Dugger, Politician, p. 312; AA-S, DMN, HP, May 23, 1948; Busby, Clark, Vann Kennedy, Lawson interviews. “I talk”: Caro, Path, p. 70.
“He said”: Hopkins OH. “My God”: Hopkins interview. Snake joke: Dan White to Caro, April 2, 1986 (in author’s possession); Bethke, Lon Smith, Stehling interviews. “Boy, you”: Clark interview. “I’ll make you”: Bethke interview.
“We shall overcome”: Caro, Means, pp. xiii-xix.
“No ‘darkies’”: Johnson, Vantage Point, p. 155.
“Yet for years”: Parker, Capitol Hill, pp. v, vi, 16, 23. When Parker’s book was published in 1986, Jack Valenti and Horace Busby attacked his veracity. Busby said that although he was on Johnson’s staff in 1949 and 1950, Parker was “no one I knew. I never saw him.” Valenti called the book a “hoax.” But Johnson aide Lloyd Hand, who was on his Senate staff from 1957 until 1960, “confirmed” to Lois Romano of the Washington Post, as she reported on June 14, 1986, “that Johnson had known Parker, and said he remembered Parker serving at Johnson’s parties.” John Connally confirmed to the author that Parker had indeed served as Johnson’s part-time chauffeur and as a bartender and waiter at his parties. Walter Jenkins, during a discussion with the author—some years before Parker’s book was published—about Johnson’s use of “patronage” employees to supplement his own staff, mentioned Parker as an example.
“There wasn’t”: Crider, quoted in Dugger, p. 71. Description of picking cotton: Caro, Path, pp. 115–16. “A man-killing”: Humphrey, Farther Off, p. 55. “Boy”: Ava Johnson Cox, quoted in Caro, Path, p. 121. Working on the road gang: Caro, pp. 121, 132–33. “Did not”: McPherson, Political Education, p. 138.
Lyndon Johnson in Cotulla: Caro, Path, Chapter 10 (“Cotulla”). “I saw”: Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson, p. 66. “I could never”: Dugger, p. 115.
“I’m gonna”: Johnson-Walker Stone telephone tape, Jan. 6, 1964, citation 1196, White House Tapes. “No teacher”: Caro, Path, p. 168.
Saving from foreclosure: Caro, Path, pp. 256–58. Brought electricity: Caro, Chapter 27 (“The Sad Irons”) and Chapter 28 (“‘I’ll Get It for You’”).
“The best”: Corcoran interview.
“Hustle”; “It sorta”: Dugger, pp. 187–88. “You have any”: Elliott, quoted in Miller, Lyndon, p. 56; Monroe Billington, “Lyndon B. Johnson and Blacks: The Early Years,” The Journal of Negro History, Jan. 1975, p. 29.
Choreographed: Interviews with Deason, Morgan, and one NYA staff member who asked not to be quoted by name.
“Easily”: Akridge, “Brief Report by Mr. Akridge on the States in His Region,” Feb. 2, 1937, Box 10, JNYA. “He always”; “I think”; “‘You can’t’”: Brown OH. “Kept talking”: Weaver, quoted in Miller, p. 56. “One who has proven”: Bethune to Johnson, May 3, 1937, “Box 1, Correspondence B, 1937 Campaign,” JHP, cited in Christie Bourgeois, “Lyndon Johnson’s Years with the National Youth Administration,” unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Texas, May, 1986, p. 73. “Whenever”: Brown OH.
“He never asked”: Deason, quoted in Miller, p. 56. “Johnson did”: Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson, p. 231. “Mules”: Durr OH.
“Daily”: Jones interview. Wirtz accompanying Johnson: Deason, Jones, Rather interviews.
Told by NYA administrators: Johnson was to note that he had “discussed this matter thoroughly” with Corson on the telephone and “at some length” when he came to Washington to attend a conference of the NYA’s state directors in August. On Sept. 17, Corson pressed him further. (See below.) “Outstanding”: “Special Report of Negro Activities of the NYA of Texas …,” March 5, 1936, Submitted by Lyndon B. Johnson, Box 9, JNYA. “Large number”: Corson to Johnson, Sept. 17, 1935, Box 8, JNYA. Johnson’s letter: Johnson to Corson, Sept. 22, 1935, Box 8, JNYA. “Under”: Corson to Williams, Sept. 25, 1935, “Copies of Internal Memoranda, 1935–1940,” Box 10, JNYA.
Seven of the ten: McKelvey to Linville, Dec. 2, 1935, “Directors—File of Reports of State Directors of Negro Affairs,” RG 119, E 120, NA, gives the names of the Negro Board members for Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia. Tennessee’s African-American Board member, Dr. Charles Johnson, was appointed March 9, 1936. Georgia’s, Alva Tabor, was appointed Jan. 28, 1937 (“Reports of the State Advisory Commissions and Membership Data, 1937–1942,” Box 2, RG 119, NA). Mississippi’s two black Board members, William H. Bell and Laurence Jones, were appointed Feb. 11, 1937, and Nov. 10, 1939, respectively (“Report on Mississippi,” April 1, 1941,
Box 7, RG 119, NA). Alabama also had two black Board members (Bryan to Williams, April 10, 1941, Box 3, RG 119, NA).
“It does not”: Bethune, quoted in Weisenberger, Dollars and Dreams, p. 130. “In those states”: “Summary of Program—NYA,” Feb. 26, 1936, Box 2, RG 119, NA. Ten of eleven: “Negro Representatives on State Staffs,” “Director’s File of Reports of State Directors of Negro Affairs,” RG 119, NA. Did not appoint: No administrator for Negro Affairs was hired by the Texas NYA until Mr. J. W. Rice was hired in 1940 (Weisenberger, p. 135). Used as liaison: “Special Report of Negro Activities of NYA in Texas,” March 16, 1936, Box 9, JNYA.
Not given adequate; “feels … that”: Saddler to Brown, March 28, 1936, Records of the NYA, Records of the Director, Division of Negro Affairs “Inactive Files” Correspondence, 1935–38, Box 4, NA; B. Joyce Ross, “Mary McLeod Bethune and the National Youth Administration,” The Journal of Negro History, Jan. 1975, p. 14;Stanford P. Dyer, “Lyndon B. Johnson and the Politics of Civil Rights, 1936–1960,” unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M University, 1978, pp. 37, 38; Deason, Jones interviews. “I was”: Saddler to Johnson, April 9, 1936, Box 2, JNYA.
“We feel”: Brown to Johnson, Aug. 3, 1936; Johnson to Brown, Aug. 12, 1936, Box 9, JNYA. “What was said”; “Apparently”: Weisenberger, p. 135. Billington agrees with this conclusion. “He operated a segregated administration,” he wrote, adding that “that was to be expected in view of the … times.” And he wrote that Johnson “did not appoint blacks to paid supervisory capacities” (Monroe Billington, “Lyndon B. Johnson and Blacks: The Early Years,” The Journal of Negro History, Jan. 1975, p. 31).
Further down: One of Johnson’s white administrators, Joseph Skiles, says, “I don’t think … that we had any black staff members of great stature” (Skiles OH). Two top supervisors; every counselor: Saddler to Johnson, March 28, 1936; Deason interview. And see Stanford P. Dyer, “Lyndon Johnson and the Politics of Civil Rights, 1936–1960,” unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M University, 1978, pp. 39, 48–50.
Mrs. Roosevelt insistent; Williams sought: Lash, Eleanor and Franklin, pp. 537–54; Weisenberger, p. 127; Lash interview. “Certainly”; “while”: NYA Division of Negro Affairs, “Problems and Suggestions in Regard to the Operation of the Program Among Negro Youth,” Nov. 1936, Records of the National Youth Administration, Box 118, RG 119, NA.
“In going over”: Brown to Johnson, Jan. 22, 1936, NYA RG 119, Box 49, NA. Monthly racial breakdowns of the Texas NYA’s overall programs can be found for only two months, March 1936, when the percentage of the Texas NYA’s total aid distributions that went to black youths was 11.3 percent, and February 1937, the last month of Johnson’s tenure, when the figure was 13.7 percent (U.S. Govt. Records, NYA, 1935–1938, Box 9, LBJL). “Special Report of Negro Activities of the NYA of Texas, in response to letter from Richard R. Brown … March 16, 1936,” Box 9; L. B. Griffith to Johnson, April 27, 1936, Box 10, U.S. Govt. Records, NYA, 1935–1938, LBJL. (Administrative Reports: Jan.-June 1937, NYA 1935–38, Box 6, LBJL. Appendix to NYA Monthly Narrative and Statistical Report, ESTIMATED REPORT ON EMPLOYMENT … for Month Ending Feb. 28, 1937, attached to Kellam to Brown, March 10, 1937, Administrative Reports: Jan.-June 1937, NYA 1936–38, Box 6, LBJL.) Scattered and incomplete: NYA Administrative Reports, Boxes 5, 6, LBJL. “Considerable difference”: McKelvey to Morrow, Jan. [29?], NYA Box 3, LBJL. Another possible criterion of fairness is noted by Stanford P. Dyer: “Under Johnson’s leadership, Texas’s NYA helped 18,000 high school and college students stay in school. He also found employment on work relief projects for 11,000 out-of-school youths. Included in these numbers were about 3,600 blacks or about twelve percent of the total. At that time blacks made up a little more than fourteen percent of Texas’s population; thus their participation was a little less than their actual numerical proportion. However, in 1937 black youths constituted over forty percent of those who qualified for NYA assistance. On the basis of need, then, blacks received far less than their proper proportion” (Stanford P. Dyer, “Lyndon B. Johnson and the Politics of Civil Rights, 1936–1960,” unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M University, 1978). A more detailed analysis of these figures casts more light on Dyer’s “far less” phrase. When Lyndon Johnson became Texas NYA Director, there were 123,890 men and women between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five (the age group, characterized as “youth,” that the NYA was authorized to help) on relief in the state (AA-S, Sept. 3, 1935). The best estimate available says that 40 percent—or about 50,000—of this number were black (Weisenberger, p. 134; “Youth Population by States,” Box 10, JNYA). Since the number of blacks receiving NYA assistance during Johnson’s tenure seldom (if ever; for many months, the figures are unavailable) rose above 4,000, the NYA was helping, at the most, about 8 percent of the eligible blacks. There were, by this estimate, about 74,000 white youths on relief, and the monthly NYA roll included assistance to about 23,000 of them—or about 30 percent.
Treatment of Mexican Americans: Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans, pp. 30–35. Not a single: Johnson to Brown, June 15, 1936, Box 1, JNYA; and see Weisenberger, p. 142. Classifying them: Pycior, p. 31. “Know how”: “Suggested Labor Supervisory Requests for Johnson City NYA-REA Building, n.d., Box 191, JHP. “Categorized”: Pycior, p. 35.
“It was”: Birdwell OH. “Thus”: Pycior, pp. 31–33. “Did not”: Pycior, p. 33; Deason interview.
“Real, though expendable”: Dugger, p. 14. Saw headline: Caro, Path, pp. 389–95.
Austin housing problems: Orum, Power. Cash payments: Caro, Path, p. 407. “It might”; “I think”; “I’ll never”: E. H. Elliot, F. R. Rice, B. E. Conner, respectively, all quoted in Dugger, p. 197. “Now look”: Dugger, p. 209.
“Tarnish” speech: CR, 75/3, Feb. 3, 1938; Pycior, pp. 37, 38. “Because”: Keyserling, quoted in Miller, p. 72.
Story after story: Summed up in Orum, p. 133. Every one: AA-S, Jan. 25, 1938. Strong opposition; Johnson named: Orum, pp. 133–35, 170; Clark, Gideon, Herring interviews. “Lyndon was”: Brown, quoted in Caro, Path, p. 471. “Serious flaw”: Dugger, p. 211. Number of apartments: Housing and Home Finance Agency, Public Housing Administration, “State of Texas—Congressional District No. 10—as of March 31, 1948,” Box 70, LBJA SF. “War Projects, Vets Housing, Austin, Jan. 1946,” Box 221, Annual Report, Housing Authority of the City of Austin for 1950, Housing Authority; Berry, University of Texas, pp. 52–53; Boxes 221, 273, JHP.
Assured: Johnson to Johnny Clark, March 4, 1948, JHP. Voting record: “Complete House Voting Record of Congressman Lyndon Johnson, by Subject, from May 13, 1937, to December 31, 1948,” Box 75, LBJA SF. “A farce”: AA-S, May 23, 1948. “He just”: Izac, quoted in Caro, Pat h, p. 549.
“Hardly mentioned”: Billington, “Lyndon B. Johnson and Blacks: The Early Years,” The Journal of Negro History, Jan. 1975, p. 34. “For U.S.”: Houston Informer, July 24, 1948, quoted in Dyer, p. 69. “They had”: Clark interview. “DO NOT RELEASE”: Statements File, Box 6, LBJL.
32. “Proud to Be of Assistance”
All dates are 1949 unless otherwise indicated.
Longoria’s death: Si Dunn, “The Legacy of Private Longoria,” Scene Magazine, DMN, April 6, 1975.
“The whites won’t like it”: “Statement,” Mrs. Beatrice Longoria before notary public Hector de Pena, Feb. 9, Box 2, PPCF.
“The white people”: Kennedy, quoted in CCC-T, Jan. 11. “But in this case”: “Conversation on the telephone,” Gladys Blucher before de Pena, Feb. 9, Box 2, PPCF. Garcia’s telegram: Garcia to Johnson, Jan. 10, Box 2, PPCF.
“By God”: Connally interview. Arlington burials: “Procedure on Joint Funerals Held in Arlington National Cemetery,” Box 2, PPCF.
Johnson’s “immediate reaction”: Connally interview; Jenkins OH. Checking Garcia’s account: Connally, “Memo for the Files, Re: Felix Longoria,” Jan. 11; Connally, “Re: Felix Longoria File,” Jan. 14, both Box 2, PPCF. Johnson’s telegram: Johnson to Garcia, Jan. 11, Box 2, PPCF.
G.I. Forum ral
ly: CCC-T, Jan. 12; Busby interview. “HUMBLY GRATEFUL”: Beatrice Longoria to Johnson, Jan. 12, Box 2, PPCF.
Johnson dissatisfied with Jenkins’ draft: His rewriting of the last sentence is on Johnson to Beatrice Longoria, Jan. 12, Box 2, PPCF.
Called in White; telephoned Winchell: Connally, Busby interviews. “The State of Texas”: Winchell, quoted in Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans, p. 69. “U.S. TO BURY”: NYHT, Jan. 14. “G.I. DENIED”: WS, Jan. 13. “A ringing blow”: Sherman Democrat, Jan. 16. “A WRONG IS RIGHTED”: Denison Press, Jan. 24. VFW wire: Peter J. White, Cmdr., NYC Post 505, VFW, to Johnson, Jan. 13, Box 2, PPCF. “It was impossible”: Johnson to Beatrice Longoria, Jan. 13, Box 2, PPCF. “His reaction”: Connally interview.
“We began”: Connally interview. “I think”: Jenkins OH. “Inspired”: Pycior, p. 71. “The phones”: Connally, quoted in Pycior, p. 71.
First sign; “any answer”: “Buzz,” “Memo to Mr. Johnson,” Jan. 14, Box 2, PPCF. Kennedy and Ramsey statements: CCC-T, Jan. 13, 14;Valley Morning Star, Jan. 13. “It’s too bad”: Buzz to Connally, undated, Box 2, PPCF. Johnson understood: Connally interview. “No wild-eyed”: Caro, Path, p. 273. “Realized”: Oltorf interview.
Voting practices in South Texas: Caro, Path, pp. 720–23, 732–33; Caro, Means, pp. 182–83, 321. “You get”: Clark interview.
“WE DEPLORE”: Three Rivers C of C to Johnson, Jan. 15 (two telegrams), Box 2, PPCF.
Brought him: “Statement,” Carolina Longoria, March 7, before notary public J. Guadalupe Trevino, and statement, “On this 20th day of February …,” Guadalupe Longoria Sr., Feb. 20, both Box 3, PPCF. Statement he wouldn’t sign: “The following is a statement made …,” Box 2, PPCF. “His grief”: Stanford Dyer and Merrell Knighten, “Discrimination After Death: Lyndon Johnson and Felix Longoria,” Southern Studies, Winter 1978, p. 421.
Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson Page 181