Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950

by Mark Mazower

  21. FO 195/586, Calvert-Constantinople, August 10, 1858.

  22. FO 195/240, Blunt-Canning, August 20, 1845; FO 195/1196, Barker-Layard, 11 May 1878.

  23. S. Deringil, “ ‘There is no compulsion in religion’: on conversion and apostasy in the late Ottoman empire,” in his The Ottomans, the Turks and World Power Politics (Istanbul, 2000), 122.

  24. FO 195/240, Blunt-Canning, August 20, 1845; 195/1255, Blunt-Layard, 30 June 1879.

  25. FO 195/1107, “Preliminary deposition of Colonel Selim Bey”.

  26. FO 195/1107, Blunt-Elliott, 7 May 1876.

  27. FO 195/1107, Blunt-Elliott, 6 June 1876.

  28. 195/526, Blunt-Canning, 20 March 1856; Mary Adelaide Walker, Through Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes (London, 1864), 77–80.

  29. 195/1107, Blunt-Derby, 31 May 1876; 195/1108, Blunt-Elliott, 5 Oct. 1876, 23 Oct. 1876.

  30. F. Blunt, My Reminiscences, 211; 195/1107, “List of individuals regarded as guilty in recent events in Salonica,” 383.

  31. J. J. Best, Excursions in Albania etc. (London, 1842), 227–228; FO 195/1007, Blunt-Elliott, July 7, 1873; 195/176, Blunt-Ponsonby, 23 April 1840, and 22 Oct. 1840.

  32. FO 195/240, Blunt-Canning, 20 August 1846; 195/371, Blunt-Stratford Canning, 28 Oct. 1851; 195/756, Wilkinson-Bulwer, 5 May 1863; 195/723, Calvert-Constantinople, 23 April 1862.

  33. 195/1108, Blunt-Elliott, 5 Oct. 1876; 195/1149, Barker-Layard, 26 Oct. 1877; 78/2994, Blunt-Layard, 21 Sept. 1879.

  34. A. Toumarkine, Les migrations des populations musulmanes balkaniques en Anatolie (1876–1913) (Istanbul, 1995), 27–29.

  35. A. Uner Turgay, “Circassian immigration into the Ottoman empire, 1856–1878,” in W. Hallaq and D. P. Little, eds., Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J. Adams (Brill, 1991), 193–217; FO 195/1196, Barker-Layard, 5 Jan. 1878; B.N. Simsir, ed., Rumeli’den Türk Göcleri (Ankara, 1989), 226; B. Gounaris, Steam over Macedonia, 1870–1912 (New York, 1993), 257.

  36. 195/1196, Barker-Layard, 5 July 1878.

  9 / Travellers and the European Imagination

  1. F. Baumer, “England, the Turk and the Common Corps of Christendom,” American Historical Review (1944).

  2. A. Oakes and R. B. Mowat, eds., The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1930), 176–177.

  3. E. Isambert, Itinéraire descriptif, historique et archéologique de l’Orient (Paris, 1881), xxii.

  4. Anon. “Letters to my Sister: Letter III: Turkey-Salonica, 1839,” Southern Literary Messenger (July 1840), 550; Karl Braun-Wiesbaden, Eine türkische Reise (Stuttgart, 1876), ii, 96–97, 129–130.

  5. Appleton’s Journal, 11:65 (Nov. 1881), 469–472; W. Miller, Travels and Politics in the Near East (London, 1898), xiv; F. Moore, The Balkan Trail (London, 1906), 88.

  6. R. Tweddell, ed., Remains of the Late John Tweddell (London, 1815), 272–273.

  7. E. Isambert, Itinéraire, xxvi; cf R. Schiffer, Oriental Panorama: British Travellers to Nineteenth Century Turkey (Amsterdam, 1999), 35–38. Also J. Buzard, The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature and the Ways to “Culture,” 1800–1918 (Oxford, 1993).

  8. J. Baker, Turkey (New York, 1877), 371; E. Miller, Le Mont Athos, Vatopedi, L’île de Thasos (Paris, 1889), 234; D. Urquhart, Spirit of the East (London, 1838), 208.

  9. Handbook for Travellers in Greece (London, 1854), 7; B. Nicolaidy, Les Turcs et la Turquie Contemporaine. Itineraire et Compte-Rendu de Voyages dans les Provinces Ottomanes (Paris, 1859), 1, 49–50.

  10. H. Holland, Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, Macedonia etc during the Years 1812 and 1813 (London, 1815), 310; G. S. Davies, The Heathen World and St. Paul: St. Paul in Greece (London, n.d.), 123.

  11. A. Goff and H. Fawcett, Macedonia: A Plea for the Primitive (London, 1921), 155–157; H. F. Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London, 1869), ii, 140–141; G. F. Abbott, The Tale of a Tour in Macedonia (London, 1903), 35; John Foster Fraser, “Adrianople, Salonika and Monastir,” in E. Singleton, ed., Turkey and the Balkan States (New York, 1908), 148; R. Schiffer, Oriental Panoramas, ch. 8, is excellent background.

  12. A. Goff and H. Fawcett, Macedonia: A Plea for the Primitive, 128–129.

  13. E. Isambert, Itinéraire, xxxv; E. Lear, Journals of a Landscape Painter, 25. See generally, J. Buzard, The Beaten Track, ch. 1.

  14. Handbook for Travellers in Greece (London, 1854), 1; J. P. Mahaffy, Greek Pictures (London, 1890), 218; W. Miller, Travels and Politics, 365; R. H. Russell, On the Edge of the Orient (New York, 1896), 191.

  15. E.-M. de Vogüé, “La Thessalie,” Revue de Deux Mondes, 31 (1879), 6; Murray cited in B. Gounaris, “Salonica,” Review: Fernand Braudel Center, 16:4 (Fall, 1993), 499–518.

  16. Lear, Journals, 18–19; H. Melville, Journals (Evanston, Ill., 1989), 56; Walker, Through Macedonia, 31–32.

  17. E.-M. de Vogüé, “La Thessalie,” 7; H. Melville, Journals, 55; Braun-Wiesbaden, “Letters,” 550; Clarke, Travels, 360.

  18. A. Boué, La Turquie d’Europe (Paris, 1840), ii, 326–327.

  19. Lear cited by J. Pemble, The Mediterranean Passion (Oxford, 1988), 50; anon., “Letters to My Sister: Letter III: Turkey-Salonica, 1839,” Southern Literary Messenger (July 1840), 550; M. A. Walker, Through Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes (London, 1864), 86.

  20. E. Lear, Journals of a Landscape Painter (London, 1848), 18; anon., “De Salonique à Belgrade,” Revue des Deux Mondes, 85 (1888), 108.

  21. A. Choisy, L’Asie Mineure et Les Turcs en 1875: Souvenirs de Voyage (Paris, 1876), 13; Braun-Wiesbaden, 135; S. Whitman, Turkish Memories (New York, 1914), 40–41.

  22. G. Muir Mackenzie and A. P. Irby, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe (London, 1877, 2nd ed.), I, 63; A. Goff and H. Fawcett, Macedonia: A Plea for the Primitive (London, 1921), 138–140; E. Isambert, Itineraire, I, (1873 ed.), 475.

  23. A. E. Vakalopoulos, “I Thessaloniki kai i perochi Pellas-Yenitson sta 1828,” Makedonika, 26 (1987–88), 187.

  24. F. Blunt, My Reminiscences, 234; Nicolaidy, I, 43–44.

  25. P. Loti, Aziyadé (Paris, 1886), 1–7.

  26. J.-J. Frappa, A Salonique sous l’oeil des Dieux (Paris, 1917), 137–138.

  27. Doctor Gelibert, Avec les Poilus d’Orient (Lyon, 1936), 161–162.

  28. P. Roussel, Salonique au temps de la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1925), 167.

  29. Roussel, Salonique, 99.

  10 / The Possibilities of a Past

  1. H. G. Dwight, “Saloniki,” National Geographic, 30:3 (1916), 221.

  2. J. Pemble, The Mediterranean Passion: Victorians and Edwardians in the South (Oxford, 1987), 267; Murray’s Handbook, 1.

  3. Bisani, Picturesque Tour, 35; Clarke, Travels, 335–337.

  4. Braun-Wiesbaden, 263; Davies, St. Paul in Greece, 129; Walker, Through Macedonia, 66.

  5. E. Isambert, Itinéraire descriptif, historique et archéologique de l’Orient (Paris, 1881), xviii.

  6. Urquhart, The Spirit of the East (London, 1838), i, 11; Choisy, L’Asie Mineure, 16–22; anon., “De Salonique à Belgrade,” 115; D. Vaka, The Heart of the Balkans (New York, 1917), 228; Moore, The Balkan Trail, 87.

  7. J. J. Best, Excursions in Albania etc., (London, 1842), 209; Irby and Mackenzie, Travels, 56; D. Bikelas, La Grèce Byzantine et Moderne (Paris, 1893), 4.

  8. Tozer, Researches, 145; de Vogüé, “La Thessalie,” 7.

  9. D. Placide de Meester, Voyage de deux Bénédictins aux monastères du Mont-Athos (Paris, 1908), 25.

  10. Mahaffy, Greek Pictures, 219; N. P. Kondakov, Makedon’iia: arkheologicheskoe puteshetvie (St. Petersburg, 1909).

  11. M. A. Walker, Through Macedonia, 51; Bowen, Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus, 28; S. G. Green, Pictures from Bible Lands (London, n.d.), v, 171–174; J. Baker, Turkey (New York, 1877), 349.

  12. Bowen, Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus, 28; S.G. Green, Pictures, v, 171–174.

  13. Davies, St. Paul in Greece, 120–125; S. G. Green, Pictures from Bible Lands, vii.

  14
. A. Boué, La Turquie d’Europe (Paris, 1840), ii, 307; Braun-Wiesbaden, 241–242.

  15. H. Omont, ed., Missions Archéologiques Françaises en Orient aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, ii (Paris, 1902), 725–727.

  16. Remains of the late John Tweddell, 343–345.

  17. H. Omont, “Inscriptions grecques de Salonique,” Revue Archaeologique, xxiv (1894), 196–214.

  18. S. Reinach, Conseils aux Voyageurs Archéologues en Grèce et dans l’Orient Hellénique (Paris, 1886), 108–109.

  19. A. Slade, Record of Travels in Turkey, Greece etc. (London, 1854), 512.

  20. C.T. Newton, Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (London, 1865), 121.

  21. The entire story has been reconstructed from E. Miller, Le Mont Athos, Vatopedi, L’île de Thasos (Paris, 1889).

  22. P. Perdrizet, “L’Incantada de Salonique,” Monuments et Mémoires, 31 (Paris, 1930), 51–90.

  23. W.M.K. Shaw, Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology and the Visualisation of History in the Late Ottoman Empire (California, 2003), 94; FO 195/1196, Barker-Layard, 21 Dec. 1878.

  24. Ibid.

  25. Abbott, Tale of a Tour, 13.

  11 / In the Frankish Style

  1. F. Moore, The Balkan Trail (London, 1906), 90; P. Risal, La ville convoitée: Salonique (Paris, 1914), 352.

  2. E. Isambert, Itinéraire, xx; D. Urquhart, The Spirit of the East (London, 1838), ii, 61; Choisy, L’Asie Mineure, 1–2.

  3. J. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 1776–1882 (Princeton, 1969), 187; C. G. Pitcairn Jones, Piracy in the Levant, 1827–28: Selected from the papers of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington (London, 1934), 138; T-46/9 (Despatches from US Ministers to Turkey, 1818–1906), vii, Porter-Washington, 10 Aug. 1833; ibid., 12 Sept. 1834.

  4. E. Toledano, Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East (Princeton, 1998), ch. 1.

  5. Mary Adelaide Walker cited by B. Gounaris, Steam over Macedonia, 1870–1912 (Columbia UP, 1993), 35; J. Baker, Turkey (New York, 1877), 389.

  6. K. Tomanas, Chroniko tis Thessalonikis 1875–1920 (1995), 69, 77; Paul Lindau cited in P. K. Enepekidis, I Thessaloniki sta chronia 1875–1912 (1988), 316–317.

  7. W. Miller, Travels and Politics in the Near East (London, 1898), 363.

  8. B. Gounaris, Steam over Macedonia, 35–58.

  9. J. Baker, Turkey, 392; M. Anastassiadou, Salonique, 1830–1912: Une ville ottomane à l’âge des Réformes (Brill, 1997), 100.

  10. A. Boué, Receuil d’Itinéraires dans la Turquie d’Europe (Vienna, 1854), 154.

  11. R. Molho, “ ‘Le Cercle de Salonique’ 1873–1958: Leschi thessalonikeon: symvoli sti meleti tis astikis taxis tis Thessalonikis,” in Etaireia Meletis Ellinikou Evraismou, Oi Evraioi ston elliniko choro: zitimata istorias sta makra diarkeia (Athens, 1995), 103–131.

  12. R. Molho, Oi evraioi tis Thessalonikis, 1856–1919 (Athens, 2001), 82–84.

  13. H. Collinson Owen, Salonica and After (London, 1919), 83.

  14. V. Gounaris, “Thessaloniki, 1830–1912: History, economy and society,” in I. Hassiotis, ed., Queen of the Worthy: Thessaloniki, History and Culture (1997), 118.

  15. P. Valsamides, “Ta tourkika scholeia sto santzaki tis Thessalonikis kata to 1901–1911,” Makedonika (1997–98), 345–355.

  16. Anastassiadou, Salonique, 1830–1912, 260–264; L. Sciaky, Farewell to Salonica (1946), 145, 152.

  17. Enepekidis, 319–320; F. Blunt, My Reminiscences; E. Adler, Jews in Many Lands (Philadelphia, 1905), 141.

  18. Risal, La ville convoitée, 352–353; “Sita,” The Cornhill Magazine (April 1917), 451–460.

  19. A. Themopoulou, “Epidimies sti Thessaloniki,” EIE, IZ’ Panellinio Istoriko Synedrio: Praktika (1997), 286–300; Vasdravellis, Istorika Archeia, 389, 421.

  20. R. Arthur Arnold, From the Levant (1868), 327.

  21. Enepekidis, Thessalonikis, 353.

  22. Journal de Salonique, 21 Sept. 1896.

  23. “Les noms des Rues,” Journal de Salonique, 26 May 1898.

  24. P. Kokkas, “I oikoyeneia Garbolas kai i proti elliniki efimerida tis Thessalonikis,” Makedonika, 21 (1984), 234.

  25. A. Yerolympou and V. Colonas, “Mia kosmopolitiki poleodomia,” in G. Veinstein, ed., Thessaloniki, 1850–1918 (1994), 174.

  26. Ibid.

  27. Journal de Salonique, 23 July 1896.

  28. Journal de Salonique, 28 Dec. 1896.

  29. Journal de Salonique, 23 July 1896.

  30. Journal de Salonique, 20 July 1896.

  31. Journal de Salonique, 27 July 1896.

  32. Journal de Salonique, 26 Oct. 1896; A. Karadimou-Yerolympou, “O typos kai i diamorphosi mias ‘syneidisi tis polis’ sta teli tou 19ou aiona,” KIS, I neoteri istoria tis Thessalonikis kai o typos (1993), 116.

  33. Journal de Salonique, 24 August 1896; Tamarix, 3 (March 1997): “To kats mechri telikis ptoseos.”

  34. Molho, Oi evraioi, 117–120.

  35. Tomanas, Chroniko tis Thessalonikis, 1875–1920, 104.

  36. Tomanas, Chroniko tis Thessalonikis, 1875–1920, 77–78.

  37. Tomanas, Chroniko tis Thessalonikis, 1875–1920, 104; Enepekidis, Thessaloniki, 342.

  12 / The Macedonia Question, 1878–1908

  1. N. Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (London, 1964/1998), 158; P. Risal, La ville convoitée (Paris, 1914), x, 203; “Les races sont des troupeaux,” La Solidaridad Ovradera, 2 June 1911, cited in N. Cohen-Rak, “Salonique en 1911 à travers La Solidaridad Ovradera,” Revue des Études Juives, CXL VIII (July–Dec. 1989), 477–485.

  2. Fraser, “Adrianople, Salonika and Monastir,” 149; Abbott, Tale of a Tour, 21–22; anon., “De Salonique à Belgrade,” 114–115; de Meester, “Voyage,” 20.

  3. Choisy, L’Asie Mineure, 22; Mackenzie and Irby, Travels, 69.

  4. Braun-Wiesbaden, Eine türkische Reise, 213–214.

  5. H. N. Brailsford, Macedonia: Its Races and their Future (London, 1906), 103, 184–185.

  6. FO 195/649, Calvert-Constantinople, 24 March 1860; 195/685, 10 June 1861.

  7. H. Layard, Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia (London, 1887), ii, 379–380.

  8. D. Dakin, The Greek Struggle in Macedonia, 1897–1913 (Thessaloniki, 1966), 14–16; V. Papageorgiou, “Oi mikres ethnikes koinotites sti disi tis othomanikis Thessalonikis,” EIE, IZ’ Panellinio Istoriko Synedrio: Praktika (1997), 297–316.

  9. Cited in FO 195/1324, Ermis, 1 Oct. 1880; Ch. Kaldaras, “Symvoli sti meleti tis drasis tou Genikou Proxeniou Thessalonikis Petrou Logotheti (1881–1885),” EIE: Praktika (1994), 414–432.

  10. FO 195/1007, Blunt-Elliot, 11 Nov. 1872; Blunt-Elliott, 28 Nov. 1874; FO 195/1196, Wilkinson-Layard, 15 July 1878.

  11. F. Blunt, My Reminiscences (London, 1918), 149.

  12. FO 195/1322, “Letter from Captive Col. Synge.”

  13. “Details concerning the release of Colonel Synge, captured more than twenty years ago by the Greek band of Captain Nico in the district of Caterini, Salonica,” FRUS 1902 (Washington, 1903), 1012–1013.

  14. “Brigandage in Macedonia,” Appleton’s Journal: A Magazine of General Literature (Nov. 1881), 469–472.

  15. FO 78/1939, Wilkinson-London, 14 May 1866.

  16. R. B. Woods, “Terrorism in the Age of Roosevelt: The Miss Stone Affair, 1901–1902,” American Quarterly, 31:4 (Autumn 1979), 478–495; T. Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair: America’s First Modern Hostage Crisis (NY, 2003); L. B. Sherman, Fires on the Mountain (Boulder, Colo., 1980).

  17. D. Livanios, “Bulgar-Yugoslav controversy over Macedonia and the British connection, 1939–1949,” D. Phil. thesis, Oxford 1995, pp. 17–20; V. Vlasidis, “I avtonomisi tis Makedonias: apo tin theoria stin praxi,” in V. Gounaris et al., ed., Taftotites sti Makedonia (Athens, 1997), 63–89.

  18. G. Megas, Oi “Varkarades” tis Thessalonikis: I anarchiki voulgariki omada kai oi vomvistikes energeies tou 1903 (1994), 47–51.

  19. Steeg—Paris, 7 May 1903, in Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Macedonia: Documents and
Materials (Sofia, 1978), 483–490.

  20. On the mosque plot, Brailsford, Macedonia, 135–136; I. Banac, With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism (Cornell, 1988), 198.

  21. “Odysseus,” Turkey in Europe (London, 1900), 344; Brailsford, Macedonia, 102; Figures in Livanios, “Bulgar-Yugoslav controversy over Macedonia,” 7.

  22. J. Koliopoulos, “Brigandage and insurgency in the Greek domains,” in D. Gondicas and C. Issawi, eds., Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism (Princeton, 1999), 143–160.

  23. Zannas, O Makedonikos Agonas, 39; Brailsford, Macedonia, 218.

  24. A. Souliotis-Nikolaides, Apomnimonevmata (1959), 43–45.

  13 / The Young Turk Revolution

  1. I. and M. Orga, Ataturk (1962), 9–47.

  2. FO 195/2297, Lamb-O’Connor, 28 March 1908, Lamb-Barclay, 2 May 1908.

  3. Ibid., Lamb-Barclay, 12 June 1908, 10 July 1908.

  4. A. Sarrou, La Jeune Turquie et la Révolution (Paris, 1912), 19–21.

  5. FO 195/2298, Lamb-Barclay, 24 July 1908.

  6. A. Sarrou, La Jeune Turquie et la Révolution, 25.

  7. FO 195/2298, Yeni Asir, 1 Sept. 1908; 195/2328 Lamb-Lowther, 21 April 1909.

  8. Ibid., Lamb-Lowther, 29 April 1909.

  9. F. McCullagh, The Fall of Abd-ul-Hamid (London, 1910), 274–277.

  10. K. A. Vakalopoulos, Neoturkoi kai Makedonia (1908–1912) (1988), 282; R. Olson, “The Young Turks and the Jews: A Historiographical Revision,” Turcica: Revue d’Etudes Turques, xviii (1986), 219–235.

  11. K. A. Vakalopoulos, Neoturkoi kai Makedonia (1908–1912), 246–247, 297.

  12. J. Landau, Tekinalp, Turkish Patriot, 1883–1961 (Istanbul, 1984), 91–107; S. J. Shaw and E. K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. II: Reform, Revolution and Republic: the Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975 (Cambridge, 1977), 301.

  13. Eugene A. Cooperman, “Turco-Jewish Relations in the Ottoman City of Salonica, 1889–1912: Two Communities in Support of the Ottoman Empire,” NYU, D. Phil.: 1991, passim, esp. pp. 104–144; J. Schechtman, The Life and Times of Vladimir Jabotinsky (no date), 1, 150–152.