8. Pavlo Skoropadsky (centre), who took the Cossack title hetman and ruled Ukraine with German backing in 1918.
COMMUNISTS
9. Oleksandr Shumskyi, the Borotbyst party leader who joined the Bolsheviks before being expelled for nationalism. Arrested during the famine.
10. Mykola Skrypnyk, the leading ‘national communist’. Killed himself during the famine.
11. Hryhorii Petrovskii with a member of the ‘Pioneer’ youth group, putting on a Pioneer tie. Leader of the Ukrainian republican government during the famine.
12. Vsevelod Balytsky, OGPU. Leader of the Ukrainian secret police during the famine.
DE-KULAKIZATION
13. An auction of ‘kulak’ property.
14. A ‘kulak’ family on their way to exile.
15. Confiscating icons, Kharkiv.
16. Discarded churchbells, Zhytomyr. They were later melted down.
17. Poor peasants beside the ruins of a burned house.
18. What collectivization was supposed to be: women voting to join a collective farm.
COLLECTIVIZATION, OFFICIAL VERSION
19. Peasants listening to the radio during a break from fieldwork.
20. Peasant family reading Pravda.
21. A bountiful tomato harvest.
22. Workers from a local factory ‘voluntarily’ help bring in the harvest.
GRAIN REQUISTIONS
23. An activist brigade finds grain buried underground. The leader is holding one of the long iron rods used in the searches.
24. An activist brigade shows off sacks of grain and corn they’ve discovered.
25. Guarding the fields on horseback.
26. Guarding the grain stores with a gun.
FAMINE, KHARKIV PROVINCE, SPRING 1933
27. Peasants leaving home in search of food.
28. An abandoned peasant house.
29. Starving people by the side of a road.
30. A starving family on waste ground.
31. Peasant girl. One of Alexander Wienerberger’s most famous photographs.
32. Breadlines in Kharkiv.
33. Breadlines in Kharkiv.
FAMINE, KHARKIV, SPRING 1933
34.
35.
36.
37.
THE AFTERMATH
38. Weinerberger took this photograph of the same man – alive and then dead.
39.
40. Two photographs taken by Mykola Bokan, Baturyn, Chernihiv province, and preserved in his police file. The first, from April 1933, includes the caption ‘300 days without a piece of bread’.
41. Bokan’s second photograph, July 1933, includes a memorial to ‘Kostya, who died of hunger’. Bokan and his son were arrested for documenting the famine. Both died in the Gulag.
THE WESTERN PRESS
42. Gareth Jones, Evening Standard, 31 March 1933.
43. Walter Duranty (centre right) dining sumptuously in his Moscow apartment.
44. Walter Duranty, The New York Times, 31 March 1933.
45. The Victors: Kaganovich, Stalin, Postyshev, Voroshilov, 1934.
46. The Victims: a mass grave outside Kharkiv, 1933.
Notes
PREFACE
1. V. V. Kondrashin et al., eds., Golod v SSSR: 1929–1934, Rossiia XX vek, vol. 1 (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnyi fond ‘Demokratiia’, 2011), 163–5, citing V. S. Lozyts’kyi, Holodomor 1932–1933 rokiv: zlochyn vlady – trahediia narodu: dokumenty i materialy (Kyiv: Heneza, 2008), 37–40.
2. TsDAHOU 1/20/5254 (1932), 1–16, in R. Ia. Pyrih, ed., Holodomor 1932–1933 rokiv v Ukraïni: Dokumenty i materialy (Kyiv: Kyievo-Mohylians’ka Akademiia, 2007), 130.
3. Ibid., 134.
4. The word ‘Haladamor’ appears in Czech publications of the Ukrainian diaspora in the 1930s. ‘Holodomor’ was probably first used publicly in Ukraine by Oleksii Musiyenko, during a speech at the Writers’ Union that was cited in Literaturna Ukraïna of 18 February 1988.
5. Hennadii Boriak, ‘Sources and Resources on the Famine in Ukraine’s Archival System’, Harvard Ukrainian Studies 27 (2004–5), 117–47.
6. Andrea Graziosi, ‘The Soviet 1931–1933 Famines and the Ukrainian Holodomor: Is a New Interpretation Possible, and What Would Its Consequences Be?’, Harvard Ukrainian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (2004), 100.
7. Tetiana Boriak has summarized their significance in her book 1933: ‘I choho vy shche zhyvi?’ (Kyiv: Clio, 2016).
8. Boriak, ‘Sources and Resources’, 117–47.
INTRODUCTION: THE UKRAINIAN QUESTION
1. Taras Shevchenko, ‘Zapovit’ (‘Testament’), in Selected Poetry, trans. John Weir (Kyiv: Ukraine, 1977), 198, available at http://www.infoukes.com/shevchenkomuseum/poetry.htm, accessed 2017.
2. Nikolai Gogol, Arabesques, trans. Alexander Tulloch (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1982), 104.
3. I. M. Dolgorukov, ‘Slavny bubny za gorami, ili moe puteshestvie koe-kuda, 1810 goda: Sochinenie Kniazia Ivana Mikhailovicha Dolgorukago c predisloviem O. M. Bodianskago’, Chteniia v Imperatorskom Obshchestve Istorii i Drevnostei Rossiiskikh pri Moskovskom Universitete 2 (April–June 1869): glava II ‘Materiialy otechestvennye’, 46.
4. Serhiy Bilenky, Romantic Nationalism in Eastern Europe: Russian, Polish and Ukrainian Political Imaginations (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012), 96–7.
5. Ibid., 244, citing Belinskii’s review of Mykola Markevych’s Istoriia Malorossii, found in Belinskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7 (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk, 1953), 60.
6. Aleksandra Efimenko, Iuzhnaia Rus: Ocherki, issledovaniia i zametki, vol. 2 (St Petersburg: [publisher unknown] 1905), 219.
7. George Y. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, 1900–1941: Its State and Status (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1989), 54.
8. Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine: The Land and its Peoples, 2nd edn (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), 17.
9. The physical descriptions in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy, a series of nineteenth-century novels set in what is now Ukraine, are actually based on the author’s journeys in the United States.
10. Serhii Plokhy, The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 9.
11. Ibid., 69.
12. Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII roy de Suède, vol. 1 (Basel: Revis, 1756), 171.
13. Shevchenko, ‘Zapovit’, 198. Also available on the website of the Taras H. Shevchenko Museum and Memorial Park Foundation in Toronto, Canada, accessed 2016, http://www.infoukes.com/shevchenkomuseum/poetry.htm#link3.
14. Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, 364.
15. Hennadii Boriak, ed., Ukraïns’ka identychnist’ i movne pytannia v Rosiis’kii imperiï: sproba derzhavnoho rehuliuvannia (1847–1914): Zbirnyk dokumentiv i materialiv (Kyiv: Instytut Istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny, 2013), 3.
16. Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1987), 24.
17. Francis William Wcislo, ‘Soslovie or Class? Bureaucratic Reformers and Provincial Gentry in Conflict, 1906–1908’, Russian Review 47, no. 1 (1988), 1–24, esp. p. 4; quoted in Andrea Graziosi, Stalinism, Collectivization and the Great Famine, in Holodomor Series (Cambridge, MA: Ukrainian Studies Fund, 2009), 9–10.
18. There are good accounts of the Ukrainian national revival in Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 221–42; Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, 467–88; and Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 147–98.
19. Andrea Graziosi, Bol’sheviki i krest’iane na Ukraine, 1918–1919 gody: Ocherk o bol’shevizmakh, natsional-sotsializmakh i krest’ianskikh dvizheniiakh (Moscow: AIRO-XX, 1997), 19–21.
20. Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s–1990s (Cam
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 43.
21. Graziosi, Stalinism, Collectivization and the Great Famine, 9–10; Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 192–3.
22. Richard Pipes, ‘Introduction’, in Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917–1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 3.
1. THE UKRAINIAN REVOLUTION, 1917
1. Robert Paul Browder and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds., The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), 383–5.
2. Leon Trotsky, Sochineniia, Seriia 1: Istoricheskoe podgotovlenie Oktiabria, vol. 3:2 (Moscow: Gosidat, 1925), 202. This is E. H. Carr’s translation from A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1923, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1950).
3. Victor Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, trans. Philip Mosely (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1936, rpt. New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), 266–7; Thomas M. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevsky: The Politics of National Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 128–9; Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), 17–91.
4. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevksy, 129.
5. Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia, 80.
6. Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 207.
7. All dates in this chapter are according to the ‘New Style’ (Gregorian) calendar, adopted in February 1918.
8. Subtelny, Ukraine: A History, 340.
9. Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 206.
10. ‘First Universal of the Ukrainian Central Rada’, quoted in Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, 473.
11. ‘Third Universal of the Ukrainian Central Rada’, quoted in ibid., 480.
12. Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924 (London: Pimlico, 1997), 79.
13. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, 78–9.
14. Mark von Hagen, ‘The Entangled Eastern Front and the Making of the Ukrainian State: A Forgotten Peace, a Forgotten War and Nation-Building, 1917–1918’ (unpublished conference paper), 9; George A. Brinkley, ‘Allied Policy and French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1917–1920’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 323–51.
15. Von Hagen, ‘The Entangled Eastern Front’, 18.
16. Mikhail Bulgakov, The White Guard, trans. Marian Schwartz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 54.
17. Ibid., 67.
18. Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1918–1919 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963), 11.
19. Bulgakov, The White Guard, 76.
20. Serhii Efremov, Shchodennyky, 1923–1929 (Kyiv: Hazeta ‘Rada’, 1997), 379–80.
21. Yuri Shapoval, ‘The Symon Petliura Whom We Still Do Not Understand’, Den 18, last modified 6 June 2006, accessed 2017, http://www.ukemonde.com/petlyura/petlyura_notunder.html.
22. Aleksei Aleksandrovich Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii, 1917–21’, in Iosif Vladimirovich Gessen, ed., Arkhiv russkoi revoliutsii, vol. 6 (Berlin: n.p., 1922), 161–303.
23. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 81.
24. Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii’, 230–4.
25. Ibid., 232.
26. Bulgakov, The White Guard, 59.
27. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 137.
28. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevksy, 163.
29. Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii’, 234.
30. Valerii Vasyl’ev, Politychne kerivnyctvo URSR i SRSR: Dynamika vidnosyn tsentr-subtsentr vlady, 1917–1938 (Kyiv: Instytut Istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny, 2014), 53–93; Jurij Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine 1917–1923: The Communist Doctrine and Practice of National Self-Determination (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1980), 129.
31. Graziosi, Bol’sheviki i krest’iane na Ukraine, 20–1.
32. This is argued in Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army During the Civil War (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1995).
33. Karl Marx, ‘The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Selected Works, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1968), 394–488.
34. V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 10 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 40–3.
35. Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto (Charleston, SC: Filiquarian Publishing, 2005), 32.
36. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 30–1.
37. Ibid., 121–38.
38. Josef Stalin, Works, vol. 2 (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954), 303, https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1933/01/07.htm. Originally published as ‘Natsional’nyi vopros i sotisal’demokratiia’, Prosveshchenie 3–5 (March–May 1913).
39. From his speech ‘Concerning the National Question in Yugoslavia, Speech Delivered in the Yugoslav Commission of the ECCI, March 30, 1925’, Stalin, Works, vol. 7, 71–2.
40. Steven Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, vol. 1 (New York: Penguin Press, 2014), 117.
41. 25 October according to the Julian calendar used in tsarist Russia; 7 November according to the Gregorian calendar, adopted in Russia in 1918.
42. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 174–5; Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘The Communist Takeover of Ukraine’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 113. They are citing a 18 December 1917 (new calendar) Pravda article.
43. This policy was a direct harbinger of one pursued by the Russian government in 2014; Bilinsky, ‘The Communist Takeover of Ukraine’, 113.
44. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 183; John Reshetar, ‘The Communist Party of Ukraine and its Role in the Ukrainian Revolution’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 170–1.
45. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 79; Reshetar, ‘The Communist Party of Ukraine’, 173–4; James Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1983), 27.
46. Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia, 84–5.
47. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation, 26.
48. N. I. Suprunenko, Ocherki Istorii Grazhdanskoi Voiny i inostrannoi voennoi interventsii na Ukraine (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 16.
49. Telegram to Antonov-Ovsienko and Ordzhonikidze, in V. I. Lenin, Polnoe Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 50 (Moscow: Politizdat, 1970), 30. An alternative translation is given in the official English version in Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 44, 57–8.
50. Roy A. Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, first published 1969, rev. and expanded edn, ed. and trans. George Shriver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 50.
51. Suprunenko, Ocherki Istorii Grazhdanskoi Voiny, 34–5.
52. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 205–6.
53. Ibid., 215.
54. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 100.
55. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 221.
56. How this happened is explained at length in Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 16–46.
57. M. Philips Price, My Reminiscences of the Russian Revolution (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 12–16.
58. Ibid., 78.
59. Ibid., 12–16.
60. George Seldes, You Can’t Print That: The Truth Behind the News, 1918–1928 (New York: Payson & Clark, 1929), 230.
61. Francis Conte, Christian Rakovski, 1873–1941: A Political Biography (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1989), 109, citing Protokoly VIII Konferentsii RKP(b): 3 December 1919 (Moscow: n.p., 1919).
63. Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution, 96.
64. Ibid., 248.
65. Alan M. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists: The Nepmen, 1921–29 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987), 6.
66. Boris Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago, trans. Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (New York: Pantheon Books, 2010), 175.
67. Bertrand Patenaude, The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 18–19.
68. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists, 4.
69. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), 195.
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