13. H. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (London, 1991), pp.21, xx.
14. Dr Strangelove. Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), dir. Stanley Kubrick.
15. 2001. A Space Odyssey (1968), dir. Stanley Kubrick. HAL, with its sinister red ‘eye’, is reminiscent of the one-eyed monster of Homer’s Odyssey, the Cyclops.
16. Mario Savio, in A. Bloom and W. Breines (eds.), Takin’ It to the Streets. A Sixties Reader (New York, 1995), pp.111–12.
17. Gregory Calvert, in Bloom and Breines, Takin’ It to the Streets, p.126.
18. Wright Mills, in Bloom and Breines, Takin’ It to the Streets.
19. Rayna Rapp (SDS, University of Michigan), cited in Fraser, 1968, p.88.
20. C. Wilkerson, Flying Close to the Sun (New York, 2007), pp.115–16.
21. Cited in K. Sale, SDS (New York, 1973), p.391.
22. M. Berg, ‘1968: A Turning Point in American Race Relations?’ in C. Fink, P. Gassert and D. Junker (eds.), 1968: The World Transformed (Cambridge, 1998), p.407.
23. S. Carmichael, Stokely Speaks. From Black Power to Pan-Africanism (Chicago, 2007), p.93.
24. Anthony Barnett, cited in Fraser, 1968, p.88.
25. George Ball, cited in F. Logevall, Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of the War in Vietnam (Berkeley, 1999), p.291.
26. Peter Tautfest, cited in Fraser, 1968, p.152.
27. Cited in G. Herring, ‘Tet and the Crisis of Hegemony’, in Fink et al., 1968, p.48.
28. G. R. Horn, The Spirit of ’68: Rebellion in Western Europe and North America, 1956–76 (Oxford, 2007), pp.228–31.
29. A. Glyn, Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization and Welfare (Oxford, 2007), p.10.
30. Cited in M. H. Little, America’s Uncivil Wars (New York, 2006), p.254.
31. Horn, Spirit of ’68, pp.158–60; A. Belden Fields, Trotskyism and Maoism. Theory and Practice in France and the United States (New York, 1988), ch.3.
32. J. Bourg, From Revolution to Ethics. May 1968 and Contemporary Thought (Montreal, 2007), p.51.
33. D. Singer, Prelude to Revolution. France in May 1968 (London, 1970), p.57.
34. Monty Python’s Life of Brian (1979), dir. Terry Jones.
35. Horn, Spirit of ’68, pp.162–3.
36. Wilkerson, Flying Close to the Sun, p.257.
37. M. Klimke and J. Scharloth, ‘Terrorism’, in Klimke and Scharloth, 1968 in Europe, pp.270–1.
38. S. Aust, The Baader–Meinhof Group: The Inside Story of a Phenomenon (London, 1987), p.38.
39. D. Hauser, ‘Terrorism in Europe’, in Klimke and Scharloth, 1968 in Europe, p.272.
40. Susanna Ronconi, quoted in D. Novelli and N. Tranfaglia, Vite Sospese: le generazioni del terrorismo (Milan, 1988), p.114. See also A. Jamieson, ‘Identity and Morality in the Italian Red Brigades’, in Terrorism and Political Violence 2, 4 (1990), p.511.
41. A. Jamieson, ‘Entry, Discipline and Exit in the Italian Red Brigades’, Terrorism and Political Violence 2, 1 (1990), p.2.
42. B. Silver, Forces of Labour. Workers’ Movements and Globalization since 1870 (Cambridge, 2005), pp.52–3.
43. L’Humanité, 9 July 1968.
44. C. Marighella, Manual of the Urban Guerrilla, trans. G. Hanrahan (Chapel Hill, 1985), p.1.
45. See R. Gott, Guerrilla Movements in Latin America (Oxford, 2008), pp.494–5; D. James, Resistance and Integration. Peronism and the Argentine Working Class, 1946–1976 (Cambridge, 1976); A. Labrousse, The Tupamaros (Harmondsworth, 1973).
46. S. B. Liss, Marxist Thought in Latin America (Berkeley, 1984), p.159.
47. The Church in the Present Day Transformation of Latin America in the Light of the Council, vol. 2 (Washington, DC, 1979).
48. M. Pérez-Stable, The Cuban Revolution. Origins, Course and Legacy (New York, 1999), pp.116–20.
49. A. Cabral, Revolution in Guinea. An African People’s Struggle (London, 1974), p.87.
50. First Solidarity Conference of the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Proceedings (Havana, 1966), p.166.
51. On links with the European Communist Parties, see D. Ottaway and M. Ottaway, Afrocommunism (New York, 1981), pp.30–5. On students and links with the West in Ethiopia, see R. Balsvik, ‘The Ethiopian Student Movement in the 1960s: Challenges and Responses’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Lund, 1982), pp.491–509.
52. Cabral, Revolution in Guinea, p.82.
53. P. Chabal, Amilcar Cabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People’s War (Cambridge, 1983), pp.167–72.
54. See Ottaway and Ottaway, Afrocommunism, pp.25–30.
55. For their thinking, see O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge, 2005), pp.204–6; K. Brutents, Sovremennye natsional’no-osvoboditel’nye revoliutsii (Nekotorye voprosy teorii) (Moscow, 1974).
56. H. Cobban, The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power and Politics (Cambridge, 1984), ch.3.
57. C. Andrew and V. Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive. The KGB in Europe and the West (London, 1999), pp.143–4.
58. F. Halliday, ‘The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen: The “Cuban” Path in Arabia’, in G. White, R. Murray and C. White (eds.), Revolutionary Socialist Development in the Third World (Brighton, 1983), pp.37–42.
59. M. Ram, Maoism in India (New York, 1971), ch.2.
60. A. Isaacman and B. Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900–1982 (Boulder, 1983), pp.98–9; M. Hall and T. Young, Confronting Levia-than. Mozambique since Independence (London, 1997), pp.62–8.
61. For similarities and differences with Maoist people’s war, see T. Henriksen, ‘People’s War in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau’, Journal of Modern African Studies 14 (1976), pp.377–99.
62. Ibid., pp.382–3.
63. On Guinea, for positive views of the PAIGC, see Lars Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau. A Study of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, 1974). For negative views, see M. Dhada, Warriors at Work. How Guinea Really was Set Free (Niwot, Colo., 1993).
64. I. Brinkman, ‘War, Witches and Traitors: Cases from the MPLA’s Eastern Front in Angola (1966–1975)’, Journal of African History 44 (2003), pp.303–25.
65. Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique, p.86.
66. M. Anne Pitcher, Transforming Mozambique. The Politics of Privatization, 1975–2000 (New York, 2002), pp.28–37.
67. Quoted in R. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger. Partners in Power (London, 2007), pp.228.
68. On party thinking, see Westad, Global Cold War, pp.202–3; on military and foreign ministry thinking, see V. M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill, 2007), p.249.
69. P. Sigmund, The Overthrow of Allende and the Politics of Chile, 1964–1976 (Pittsburgh, 1977), ch.13.
70. J. Haslam, The Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende’s Chile: a Case of Assisted Suicide (London, 2005), ch.7; P. Kornbluh, The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability (New York, 2003).
71. Zubok, Failed Empire, p.249.
72. On the army, see D. Porch, The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution (London, 1977).
73. P. Pinto, ‘Urban Social Movements and the Transition to Democracy in Portugal, 1974–1976’, Historical Journal 51 (2008), pp.1025–46; Nancy G. Bermeo, The Revolution within the Revolution: Workers’ Control in Rural Portugal (Princeton, 1986).
74. Pinto, ‘Urban Social Movements’, p.1025.
75. M. Couto, ‘The Secret Love of Deolinda’, in Couto, Everyman is a Race, trans. D. Brookshaw (Portsmouth, NH, 1994), p.112.
76. For comparisons between Soviet Marxism and African Marxism, see M. Ottaway, ‘Soviet Marxism and African Socialism’, Journal of Modern African Studies 16, 3 (1978), pp.477–85.
77. Machel, 18 November 1976, quoted in Hall and Young, Confronting Levia-than, pp.76, 67.
78. Hall and Young, Confronting Leviathan, p.102.
79. J. Coelho, ‘State Resettlement Policies
in post-Colonial Rural Mozambique: The Impact of the Communal Village Programme on Tete Province, 1977–1982’, Journal of Southern African Studies 24 (1988), pp.61–91.
80. D. Birmingham, ‘Angola’, in P. Chabal (ed.), A History of Lusophone Africa (London, 2002), pp.152–3.
81. H. Tuma, The Case of the Socialist Witchdoctor and Other Stories (Oxford, 1993), p.8.
82. Balsvik, Students, p.133.
83. B. Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991 (Oxford, 2001), p.222.
84. Ibid., pp.149–50.
85. Balsvik, Students, p.294.
86. Cited in Dawit Wolde Giorgis, Red Tears. War, Famine and Revolution in Ethiopia (Trenton, NJ, 1989), p.11.
87. R. Lefort, Ethiopia: An Heretical Revolution? trans. A. Berret (London, 1983), p.276.
88. Zewde, Modern Ethiopia, p.249.
89. Lefort, Ethiopia, p.278.
90. For this view of Mengistu, see D. Donham, Marxist Modern. An Ethnographic History of the Ethiopian Revolution (Berkeley, 1999), pp.129–30; Dawit, Red Tears, pp.30–1.
91. A. Tiruneh, The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974–1987 (Cambridge, 1993), p.79.
92. Donham, Marxist Modern, p.29.
93. Report to USAID mission in Ethiopia, 1976.
94. Lefort, Ethiopia, p.278.
95. See M. Ezra, Ecological Degradation, Rural Poverty, and Migration in Ethiopia. A Contextual Analysis (New York, 2001).
96. F. Bizot, The Gate, trans. E. Cameron (London, 2004).
97. Ibid., p.119.
98. Ibid., p.116.
99. Ibid., p.117.
100. Ibid., p.115.
101. D. P. Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. edn (Boulder, 1999), pp.8–9, 37.
102. F. Debré, Cambodge: La Révolution de la forêt (Paris, 1976), p.82.
103. Interview with Soth Polin, cited in Chandler, Brother Number One, p.52.
104. Pol Pot, ‘Abbreviated History Lesson on the History of the Kampuchean Revolutionary Movement Led by the Communist Party of Kampuchea’ (early 1977), in D. Chandler, B. Kiernan and C. Boua (eds.), Pol Pot Plans the Future (New Haven, 1988), pp.218–19.
105. See, for instance, F. Ponchaud, ‘Social Change in the Vortex of Revolution’, in K. Jackson (ed.), Cambodia 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death (Princeton, 1989), pp.170 ff.
106. Bizot, The Gate, p.110.
107. B. Kiernan, ‘Enver Pasha and Pol Pot: A Comparison between the Armenian and Cambodian Genocides’, in Proceedings of the International Conference on the ‘Problems of Genocide’ (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp.56–7.
108. P. Short, Pol Pot: The History of a Nightmare (London, 2004), p.337.
109. J.-L. Margolin, ‘Cambodia. The Country of Disconcerting Crimes’, in S. Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), p.626.
110. For different views, see K. Jackson, ‘Introduction’, in Jackson (ed.), Cambodia, pp.9, 11; M. Vickery, ‘Democratic Kampuchea: Themes and Variations’, in D. Chandler and B. Kiernan (eds.), Revolution and Its Aftermath in Kampuchea: Eight Essays (New Haven, 1983), p.131.
111. Cited in B. Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79 (New Haven, 1996), p.62.
112. See Short, Pol Pot, p.287.
113. A. Hinton, ‘Why Did You Kill? The Cambodian Genocide and the Dark Side of Face and Honor’, The Journal of Asian Studies 57 (1998), p.110.
114. Chandler et al., Pol Pot Plans the Future, p.158.
115. S. Heder, Kampuchean Occupation and Resistance (Bangkok, 1980), p.6.
116. Cited in Chandler, Brother Number One, p.115.
117. D. Pran, Children of Cambodia’s Killing Fields. Memoirs of Survivors (New Haven, 1997), p.131
118. Margolin, ‘Cambodia’, p.626.
119. Chandler et al., Pol Pot Plans the Future, p.183.
120. For higher estimates, see M. Sliwinsky, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une analyse démographique (Paris, 1995). For numbers of deaths, see Margolin, ‘Cambodia’, pp.588–91.
121. Hinton, ‘Why Did You Kill?’, pp.113, 118.
122. A. Hyman, Afghanistan under Soviet Domination, 1964–91(London, 1992), pp.92–8.
123. For Soviet thinking, H. Bradsher, Afghan Communism and Soviet Intervention (Oxford, 2000), ch.3; Westad, Global Cold War, pp.299–326.
124. Silvio Pons, ‘Meetings between the Italian Communist Party and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Moscow and Rome, 1978–80’, Cold War History 3 (2002), pp.157–66.
125. The Economist, 20 December 1978.
TWIN REVOLUTIONS
1. D. Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb. The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (London, 1994), p.156.
2. Cited in M. Leffler, For the Soul of All Mankind. The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York, 2007), p.385.
3. Ibid., p.394.
4. D. Reynolds, Summits. Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century (London, 2007), p.360.
5. M. Gorbachev, Memoirs (London, 1997), p.489.
6. Liu Binyan, People or Monsters? And Other Stories and Reportage from China after Mao, ed. P. Link (Bloomington, 1983), pp.11–68.
7. R. Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, 1994), p.8.
8. S. Shirk, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley, 1993), ch.10.
9. W. Jenner and D. Davin (eds.), Chinese Lives (London, 1986), pp.8–9, 13.
10. L. Zhang and C. Macleod (eds.), China Remembers (Oxford, 1999), p.5.
11. People’s Daily, 3 August 2006.
12. A. Yurchak, Everything was Forever, until It was No More. The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton, 2006), p.113.
13. Ibid., pp.96–7.
14. Ibid.
15. R. Tökés, Murmur and Whispers: Public Opinion and Legitimacy Crisis in Hungary, 1972–1989 (Pittsburgh, 1997), pp.37–9.
16. Ibid., p.56.
17. D. Bahry, ‘Society Transformed? Rethinking the Social Roots of Perestroika’, Slavic Review 52 (1993), pp.516–17.
18. D. Mason, Public Opinion and Political Change in Poland (Cambridge, 1985), pp.63–4.
19. H. Merskey and B. Shafran, ‘Political Hazards in the Diagnosis of “Sluggish Schizophrenia”’, British Journal of Psychiatry 148 (1986), p.253.
20. M. Fulbrook, The People’s State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker (New Haven, 2005), pp.241–2.
21. Interviewed in B. Miller, Narratives of Guilt and Compliance in Unified Germany: Stasi Informers and Their Impact on Society (London, 1999), pp.67–8.
22. Cited in Miller, Narratives of Guilt, pp.43–4.
23. Cited in ibid., p.101.
24. See Yurchak, Everything was Forever, pp.107–8.
25. Bahry, ‘Society Transformed?’, p.539.
26. Tökés, Murmur and Whispers, p.56.
27. See, for instance, J. Kopstein, The Politics of Economic Decline in East Germany, 1945–1989 (Chapel Hill, 1997), pp.122–9.
28. A. Tsipko cited in M. Ouimet, The Rise and Fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy (Chapel Hill, 2003), pp.252–3.
29. M. Ellman and V. Kontorovich (eds.), The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System: an Insiders’ History (Armonk, NY, 1998), p.173.
30. For the disillusionment of this group, see O. Westad, ‘How the Cold War Crumbled’, in S. Pons and F. Romero (eds.), Reinterpreting the End of the Cold War. Issues, Interpretations, Periodizations (London, 2005), p.76. See also A. Brown, Seven Years That Changed the World: Perestroika in Perspective (Oxford, 2007), pp.172–3.
31. A. Iakovlev, Sumerki (Moscow, 2003), p.354.
32. Mason, Public Opinion, p.45.
33. Ibid., p.82.
34. This argument, emphasizing the importance of the Church, rather than the working class or civil society, is made by M. Osa, Solidarity and Contention: Networks of Polish Opposition (Minneapolis, 2003).
35. Cited in ibid., p.136.
36. A
. Glyn, Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization, and Welfare (Oxford, 2007), p.22.
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