by Lee Miller
Sir Humphrey Gilbert and the Forward-Thinking Men
By the winter of 1575 Raleigh’s brother Gilbert is back home in London. George Gascoigne, a poet and fellow soldier, springs up his friend’s stairs at his residence in Limehouse and being very bold to demand of him how he spent his time in this loitering vacation from martial stratagems, is immediately led into the study. Gilbert flourishes a discourse penned to his elder brother John, proving that his ideas about a voyage to Cathay via North America are neither rash nor irresponsible. John had been appalled by a plan that then seemed strange and, indeed, impossible.*1 But Gilbert is made of sterner stuff. With his motto Quid non? (“Why not?”) he cries passionately that he is not worthy to live at all, that for fear, or danger of death, shunneth his country service, and his own honour, seeing death is inevitable, and the fame of virtue immortal.*1
Gilbert’s study is filled with scribblings, figures, files on exploration, navigation, sea charts, and even his own invention: a nautical instrument with a variable compass. Gascoigne, overwhelmed and excited because his own kinsman, Martin Frobisher, is ready to embark on a similar voyage of discovery, borrows Gilbert’s manuscript.43 That evening, amazed, he hauls out cosmographical maps and charts, testing ^Gilbert’s figures against the tables of Dutch mapmaker Abraham Ortelius. They prove to be accurate.
Gascoigne, at mine own greater presumption, rushes his friend’s letter to a printer. It goes to press on April 12, 1576, as A Discourse of a discovery for a new passage to Cataia by Humphrey Gilbert. His motto “Why not?” on the front cover. Gascoigne urges the Queen to reward Gilbert with as much enthusiasm as she punishes offenders. Having thus discharged his duty to both friend and country, Gascoigne bows out, signing his letter from my lodging where I march amongst the muses for lack of exercise in martial exploits, this 12 of April, 1970.44
Gilbert, the idealist, the soldier, the impatient man of action, now finds himself in the midst of a circle of London intellectuals. These are men who have more in common with Raleigh than himself. Richard Hakluyt the elder, a lawyer. His younger cousin of the same name, a geographer, cosmographer, and publisher. Both are vitally concerned with overseas colonization. They spend their time collecting data from sailors and merchants returning from exotic ports. William Camden, an historian. Thomas Hariot, Raleigh’s young protege, a graduate of Oxford and mathematical genius with an interest in navigation and inventions.45 Antwerp merchant Emanuel van Meteren, whose cousin Abraham Ortelius is a celebrated geographer and cartographer. His maps are indispensable on English ships. And, of course, Dr. John Dee, who earns his keep as royal astrologer, drawing horoscopes for the Queen and her Court. In his own day he is likened to Merlin the magician, whose figure is portrayed as Dee with his long white beard and flowing artist’s gown.
Dee is also the foremost mathematician and scientific authority of the Elizabethan Age.46 He and his brilliant pupil Thomas Digges are famous for mapping out a spectacular supernova that appeared for seventeen months in the constellation of Cassiopeia in 1572. Elizabeth often visits his home and laboratory at Mortlake, entranced by his recent inventions: a ten-foot cross staff named a “radius astronomicus,” mounted in a frame that swings up to observe the night sky; specialized compasses; prisms, optics, and refractions. Once, in a field outside his house, he showed Elizabeth, Leicester, and her entire entourage a distorting mirror that twisted their images out of proportion, to their great delight. Elizabeth startling him by laughing out loud.47
These are exciting, forward-thinking days. There are lively discussions on the northeast and northwest passages, cosmography, and navigation. Dee’s range of interests is phenomenal: mathematics, geography, cartography, ancient Greek and Arabic astronomy, the zodiac, meteorology, alchemy, and even telepathy. He conducts experiments on the time-space continuum and the fourth dimension. Mechanical devices intrigue him.48 He invents a lifelike raven and a jay, complete with feathers, a mechanical caw, and flashing eyes. This, in imitation of a fascinating experiment he observed in Nuremberg with a mechanical fly, which was released at a dinner table, buzzed around the heads of the invited guests, and softly landed in its inventor’s palm.
Dee’s private collection of four thousand volumes and seven hundred manuscripts is the greatest scientific holding in the country, a forerunner of the national library. Many are important works dating from the Middle Ages, salvaged from spoil and rot in decaying monasteries, gotten as in a manner out of a dunghill Dee refers to it as our museum, and his home is virtually haunted with multitudes who consult his library and pose to him all manner of philosophical, geographical, and mathematical questions.49
Members of this scientific circle immediately latch on to Gilbert’s plan, supporting the northwest passage in writing, proving that it can be done. Hakluyt accumulates accounts of Spanish expeditions, hoping to spark excitement. For he who proclaims the praises of foreigners, rouses his own countrymen, if they be not dolts.50 Colonization and a passage to China would thwart Spain’s trade monopoly.
North American Base
There is, however, talk of more direct action: Spain’s homebound treasure fleet.51 Ships from Cartagena and the Isthmus rendezvous in Havana with the Mexican and West Indian fleet. Between March and June they convoy home under hundreds of sail. Guarded by men-of-war. Leaving the protected Florida Strait, they randomly alter course across the Atlantic, making interception difficult. Gilbert proposes a Bermudan base from which to attack the fixed portion of the route, with English ships sent there as secretly as they may.51 Yet Bermuda is too visible — how is secrecy possible? The idea of a hidden base on the North American coast congeals.
November 6, 1577. After meeting with Dee, Gilbert submits A Discourse How Her Majesty May Meet with and Annoy the King of Spain, cautioning the Queen to beware of their pretended friendship since their fair words ought to be held but as mermaids’ songs, sweet poisons. Spain’s sea forces must be weakened, either through direct attack or under the pretense of letters patent to North American lands. Under colour of discovery. Without the Indies assailed, it were but labour lost.53
Gilbert’s Patent
1578. As spring approaches, a wax image of the Queen is found lying in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, its heart pierced with a metal pin.54 Dee is urgently sent for and declares it nothing more than a malicious prank, intended to scare Elizabeth. It does, and rumors that the Queen is dead send panic through the streets, with people rushing to the palace gates to ascertain the truth of the report. Within months, Gilbert’s patent is granted.55 Though, to his disappointment, he is instructed not to attack Spain.
Nevertheless, an alarmed Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish ambassador to England, reports meetings held in the Earl of Leicester’s own room, the Queen present, in which it is argued that robbing the treasure fleet is their only protection, unless they could establish a footing on the coast, for thus they would prevent so much money coming to your Majesty.56The elder Hakluyt, with a lawyer’s burning zeal, ceasing neither day nor night, draws up plans on North American colonization for Gilbert, urging settlement in a temperate zone that might grow olives, figs, or grapes.57 Yet the 1578 expedition, as we have seen, failed.
Invasion and Assassination
Before Gilbert’s plans have time to recover, a staggering report arrives in the autumn of 1579 that papal troops are landing in Ireland, electrifying all of England with fears that the fire was like to spread into every corner of the realm.58 Bitter fighting breaks out anew.
February 1580. Spain invades the rich kingdom of Portugal. The move is triggered by the death of King Henry and the people’s election of his nephew, Don Antonio, as successor. Ignoring this, Philip sends in troops under the Duke of Alva, and in 70 days subdued all Portugal.59 Don Antonio flees and receives immediate support in England, despite residual anger over Portugal’s participation in the papal demarcation of the world. For God that sitteth in heaven laugheth them and their partitions to scorn. It is said that as Portuguese officials passed near Quidia
na on their way to sign the Pope’s partition, they were accosted by a Portuguese child guarding his mother’s laundry. The boy asked if they were the ones come to divide the world with the Emperor? And as they answered yea, he took up his shirt behind and showed them his buttocks, saying unto them, “Draw your line through the midst of this place “60 The joke eases tension in London.
Later in the year, with England in turmoil, Drake returns to cheering crowds from a voyage around the world. The incredible navigational feat has been performed only once before — by Magellan. Drake’s homecoming is spectacular: the hold of the Golden Hind overflowing with gold, silver, jewels, and silks. Even the ballast is replaced with silver! The Queen’s investment nets her nearly 4,700 percent return.61 To a tremendous fanfare and with throngs crowding the wharf, the Queen boards the Golden Hind and knights the triumphant Drake.
In London, Mendoza furiously orders that the plunder be restored. The Privy Council deliberates on the matter while the entire kingdom anxiously awaits the Queen’s decision. Her pronouncement rings out like thunder: the plunder will not be returned. England will not acknowledge the 1493 papal demarcation. Under the law of nations, the sea is declared free and unrestricted. England will plant colonies in the Americas on lands not already inhabited by any Christian prince.62
March 18, 1581. The Dutch cartographer Mercator reports shocking news from Antwerp.63 On Sunday, a young Spaniard hoping to collect the 25,000 gold pieces Philip II had put on the head of the Prince of Orange entered the palace unseen and shot directly into the Prince’s face. The bullet entered above the right jawbone and exited from the left side of his head. Leaving him choking on his own blood, the young man fled but was overtaken on the way out. Drawing his sword, he fended off his attackers until they hacked him down. Later, emptying his pockets, they found them full of little metal crosses, a prayer scribbled on a scrap of paper, and the stub of a green wax candle. In Antwerp, the Duke of Anjou — brother to the King of France — received the news at a birthday party. It was said that he beat his head against the wall three times, then cried out loud. The Prince still lives, though the country is greatly shaken.
Tension permeates England. In June Londoners are shocked to discover the cross in West Cheap vandalized.64 The kneeling Virgin Mary is defaced, baby Jesus stolen from her broken arms. The image is found encircled with ropes, tilted and likely to fall, as though the vandals were frightened away in the act. Bleak days. England finds itself increasingly isolated. Elizabeth is reduced to a single ambassador — in Paris — and only the French and Spaniards maintain embassies in London, more for espionage than peace.
Gilbert’s Last Voyage
As the Spanish threat edges closer, Gilbert struggles to get another North American expedition off the ground. His patent, granted in 1578, expires in six years if a colony is not established. Staggering under the charges of outfitting such a venture, he is bailed out by Raleigh. He is Gilbert’s truest and most steady supporter, attests Walsingham’s agent Maurice Browne, giving him anything he requires. Including £2,000 in the form of a ship, the Bark Raleigh.65
From Richmond Palace, Raleigh pens a hurried letter to Gilbert, signing it Your true brother and enclosing a golden token from her Majesty, an anchor guided by a lady, as you see. It is inset with twenty-nine diamonds. At each point on the anchor, and near the lady’s hand, are attached great pearls. A ruby sparkles from her crown.66 Yet, sadly, the talisman will fail to protect Gilbert. Raleigh will never again see his brother alive.
June 11, 1583. Gilbert’s fleet sets sail. The voyage is plagued with trouble from the start. They are besieged by chronically bad weather. Sickness and arguments break out among an increasingly disillusioned crew. Heading south after revictualing in Newfoundland, one of the ships runs aground, drowning a hundred men. Gilbert is blamed for the accident. Terminating the voyage, he sails home in a small, grossly overladen frigate rather than share the comfort of his larger flagship, forced to be so over hard on himself because of slanders that he was afraid of the sea.67
In the midst of the Atlantic, the vessels are beset by very foul weather. By evening, raging winds drive such towering waves that the sailors, which all their lifetime had occupied the sea, never saw anything more outrageous. In the darkness, St. Elmo’s fire crackles along the mainyard, an evil sign of more tempest ahead. At midnight on September 9, the lights on the little frigate are suddenly snuffed out. Hayes, captain of the flagship, reacts in horror. For in that moment, the frigate was devoured and swallowed up of the sea.68 Arriving home at Dartmouth, Hayes rows ashore through a thick mist to report Gilbert’s death to his brother John. Perhaps Gilbert’s greatest epitaph was that written by the young poet Stephen Parmenius in the months before they embarked: / was able to recognize that you are a man of such stature and spirit as deserves to be remembered forever by posterity … God speed!69
A World Gone Mad
The fate of England lies in the balance. Assassination attempts against Elizabeth mount into the hundreds, all linked to efforts to liberate Mary Queen of Scots. 1584. One Francis Throckmorton, hauled to the Tower by Walsingham and racked, confesses to having encouraged the French Duke of Guise, Mary’s relative and Spain’s ally, to invade England with an army. The Pope calls on English nobles to stand ready when the troops land.
Dee, overseas in Prague, uncovers evidence that Mendoza is linked to the invasion plot.70 In January the ambassador is charged with conspiracy and expelled from the country to his great rage and fury. He departs threatening war, accusing the Queen and council by way of recrimination with detaining the Genoese’s money, with assisting the Estates of the Low-Countries, the Duke of Anjou, and Don Antonio, and with the depredations of Drake.71 And Raleigh: his mind now bent to the problem of saving the kingdom. The energetic young upstart at Court will soon be considered Spain’s most formidable enemy.
Raleigh: A Hero’s Rescue
We finally see Raleigh and Roanoke in perspective. March 25, 1584. Raleigh is issued Gilbert’s letters patent to North American lands.72 Impatient of diplomacy, he will confront the Spanish threat as Gilbert intended. By creating a North American naval base for privateers. A staging area for a direct attack on Spain. Hidden along an inaccessible coast, Roanoke Island will act as a refueling and supply station for swarms of pirate ships riding the swells, awaiting the returning treasure fleets. The Spaniards fear this greatly — as does one of Raleigh’s countrymen.
July 4, 1584. Raleigh swings into action with the first Roanoke voyage. Captains Amadas and Barlowe, the pilot Fernandez, John White, well furnished with men and victuals, sail into the Outer Banks and establish peace with the Secotan. Roanoke Island is selected as a site for the base. In Europe the Netherlands falls. Antwerp, the last holdout, surrenders to Spain while Raleigh’s men reconnoiter.73
Six days later, July 10, 1584. Throckmorton is executed. In Holland William the Silent is assassinated on the very same day, being treacherously shot with three bullets out of a gun by Balthazar, a Burgundian.14
October. The Roanoke expedition returns. Hakluyt presents the Privy Council with a Discourse on Western Planting, intended to convince the Queen to undertake Raleigh’s venture as a state project. There is great urgency. If she and her Council delay, he warns, let them assure themselves that they will come too late and a day after the fair.15
October. At Walsingham’s urging, Leicester forms a Bond of Association for the mutual protection of the Queen. It is composed of men from all across England, of all degrees and conditions. Thousands attach their names to a document as a pledge of allegiance, swearing to defend Elizabeth’s life with their own and to impose the death sentence on any who threaten it. Rumors pour in from all parts that great dangers were at hand16 From Prague, Dee forwards a cryptic message: the creatures of the Scorpion plan a strategic attack upon the Forest of Dean.77 Philip’s agents will set fire to the timber necessary to enlarge the English navy.
Characteristically, Leicester proposes that Mary Queen of Scot
s be poisoned.78 Walsingham objects, demanding a formal judicial inquiry. He has other plans. Panic grips the country that the utter desolation of England is imminent. Terrorized that they, too, will fall into such miserable servitude and bondage as all those countries are oppressed withal, that in times past have been famous kingdoms and other flourishing estates, and are now languishing and spoiled provinces, subdued to the thraldom of the Spaniards.79
Amid the tumult, fears of black magic spread like mania. Dee is accused of casting spells, a crime punishable by death. Someone, it would seem, would like to eliminate him as a spy. Reports run rampant of citizens prone to fits, with slurred speech and ashen color who waste away and die. With lead conduits for drinking water, witchcraft is a less likely culprit than lead poisoning.80
War at Our Door
London’s streets are swollen by European refugees, crowding an already overcrowded city. They relay horror stories of Spanish atrocities, reviling Spain as the foam of the sea, others gave them names of the beasts which are most cruel and living of prey which they have in their country. There were some likewise that called them Tuira, as one would say, the Devil’s good grace. Philip is insatiable. He will stop at nothing short of becoming Lord of all the earth81
War is inevitable, yet the English treasury, bankrupt from the previous reign, does not have the money to prosecute it. The people are exhorted to bear the burden of defense since the whole world… even the kingdoms and countries round about us (to us a world), stand at this day garboiled and oppressed with troubles and stirs; we, even we alone, here in this our England… sit us still every man in his own home, having freedom at the full to praise God in his sanctuary, and safety at the full to follow our affairs in the commonwealth. And therefore, for the procuring of peace, war must be undertaken. For their own safety, large provisions of money must be amassed.82